Kashmir Shaivism is a 19th-century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit exegetical literature of non-dual Shaiva-Shakta tantric and monistic religious traditions from Kashmir, "principally the Trika and the Krama," both subschools of the Kaula-tradition. This exegetical tradition developed in Kashmir after 850 CE, as an adaptation to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric Kaula traditions, replacing Shaiva Siddhanta as the dominant form of Saivism. It includes the Spanda ('Divine vibration') teachings, and the "Philosophy of Recognition" (Pratyabhijñā) of the Kashmir Trika-school. The term "Kashmir Shaivism" is often used synonymously for the Kashmir Trika-school and its pratyabhijñā philosophy.
The Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta (9th c. CE) and the Spanda Karika (9th c. CE) are the central texts of the Spanda system, interpreting Shakti as spanda, "cosmic pulsation" or "divine vibration", the active and creative energy of Shiva.
Defining features of the Trika tradition are the use of several triads in its philosophy, including the three goddesses Parā, Parāparā, and Aparā; and its idealistic and monistic teaching of pratyabhijna ("direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition") philosophical system, propounded by Utpaladeva (c. 925–975 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE). The main exegetical works of the Trika-tradition are those of Abhinavagupta, such as the Tantraloka, Mālinīślokavārttika, and Tantrasāra. Another important text of this tradition is the Vijñāna-bhairava-tantra, which focuses on outlining numerous yogic practices. Trika Shaivism later spread beyond Kashmir, particularly flourishing in the states of Odisha and Maharashtra.
Nomenclature Kashmir Shaivism is an umbrella term for several non-dual Shaiva-Shakta tantric religious traditions that flourished in Kashmir after 850 CE, as an adaptation to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric Kaula traditions, and include the spanda ('Divine vibration') teachings, and the "Philosophy of Recognition" (Pratyabhijñā) of the Trika-school. The term Kashmir Shaivism was popularized by a 19th-century Bengali scholar, Pandit Gangadhara Kaviratna. He coined the term for the Trika corpus—a naming that shaped how the tradition is known today. As such, Kashmir Shaivism is often used synonymously for the Trika-school and it's "Philosophy of Recognition" (pratyabhijñā). Trika, named after the use of several triades (trika) in its philosophy, was a subdivision of the Kaula-tradition, probably originated outside Kashmir before 800 CE, but the pratyabhijñā developed in Kashmir.
Alexis Sanderson has argued that the expression "Kashmir Śaivism" is inadequate and misleading when it is used to designate the non-dualist current alone, since in Abhinavagupta's time the dualist Śaiva Siddhānta, which later developed in South India, was an essential element of Śaivism in Kashmir.
History
Origins (9th century CE) Kashmir Shaivism originated in Kashmir after 850 CE, as a domestication of Kaula tantric movements, adapting its views and practices to normative upper-caste Hinduism. As Lawrence notes, " Radical practices were toned down, concealed under the guise of propriety, or interpreted as metaphors of internal contemplations."
One result of this domestication-process was the composition, by monistic Saivite Brahmins, of "increasingly systematic manuals of doctrines and practices on the model of Sanskrit scholastic texts (shāstras). This textual development began with the Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta (9th cent. CE) and the Spandakārikā (9th cent. CE), which are the central texts of the Spanda system, interpreting Shakti as spanda, "cosmic pulsation" or "divine vibraction", the active and creative energy of Shiva.
The Shiva Sutras appeared to Vasugupta in a dream, according to tradition. The Spandakārikā was either composed by Vasugupta (c. 800-850 CE) or his student Bhatta Kallata (9th cent. CE). These were a Śākta Śaiva attempt to present a non-dualistic metaphysics and gnostic soteriology, in opposition to the dualistic exegesis of the Meykandar school of Shaiva Siddhanta, while remaining in agreement with the monistic view expressed in the older and arguably more authoritative Tirumantiram of Tirumular.
Growth and flowering (900–1200 CE) While Trika draws from numerous Shaiva texts, such as the Shaiva Agamas and the Shaiva and Shakta Tantras, its major scriptural authorities are the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, the Siddhayogeśvarīmata and the Anāmaka-tantra. The main theologians of Trika Shaivism are those of the Pratyabhijñā (Recognition) school of Shaiva non-dual philosophy.
Somānanda (875-925) wrote the Śivadr̥ṣṭi, "the first work of full-fledged scholastic philosophy" of the Trika school. Utpaladeva (c. 900–950 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1016, a student of one of Utpaladeva's disciples) developed the Pratyabhijñā-system into its mature form. Utpaladeva's Īśvarapratyabhijñā-kārikā (Verses on the Recognition of the Lord) is one of the main works of this tradition, but was overshadowed by the work of Abhinavagupta. Thus, according to Torella, "Abhinavagupta's Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vimarśinī and the Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vivr̥ti-Vimarśinī (a commentary on Utpaladeva’s Vivr̥ti on his own Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Kārikā and Vr̥tti) are generally considered the standard works of the Pratyabhijñā." Torella notes however, that "most of Abhinavagupta’s ideas are just the development of what Utpaladeva had already expounded."
Abhinavagupta was initiated in the sampradayas (lineages) of the Trika, Pratyabhijñā, the Kaula Krama, and Shaiva Siddhantha, and also self-studied that spanda-system. Abhinavagupta wrote numerous other works on Shaiva tantra. His Tantrāloka, Mālinīślokavārttika, and Tantrasāra are mainly based on the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, although they also drew heavily on the Kali-based Krama tradition of the Kulamārga. Abhinavagupta's Tantrāloka is probably his most important work. According to Christopher Wallis, "the Tantrāloka is a monumental explication of Tantrik practice and philosophy in over 5,800 verses. It is encyclopedic in its scope though not organized like an encyclopedia, for instead of just enumerating theories and practices, it brings them all into a coherent framework in which everything has its place and everything makes sense in relation to the whole."
One of Abhinavagupta's students, Kshemaraja, is also an important figure who authored the influential commentaries on Shivasūtra (Śivasūtravimarśinī), Spandakārikā (Spandanirṇaya), and Svacchandatantra as well as the short Pratyabhijñāhṛdayam (The Essence of Self-Recognition).
Jayaratha (1150–1200 CE) wrote a commentary on the Tantrāloka.
Decline (1200 CE – 19th century) After 1200 CE, the institutional basis and support for the Shaiva and Buddhist Tantric tradition mostly disappeared with Islamic conquests of the region leading to the slow decline and contraction of the tradition, though especially the Kaula-influenced lineages continued to be passed down and practiced by wandering ascetics well into the 18th century, due to their non-institutionalized structure.
In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir. With the fall of Kashmir, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared. Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses which further eroded the independence of Kashmir Shaivism.
The number of major writers and publications declined after approximately the 14th century, although writers such as Rājānaka Ānanda Kavi, Anantaśaktipāda, Śivopādhyāya, Bhāskarakaṇṭha, Rājānaka Lakṣmīrāma, and Harabhaṭṭa Śāstri continued to produce important commentaries on core Kashmiri Shaiva texts into the early 20th century.
Revival (19th century – present) The term Kashmir Shaivism was popularized by a 19th-century Bengali scholar, Pandit Gangadhara Kaviratna. He coined the term for the Trika corpus—a naming that shaped how the tradition is known today.
In the 20th century Lakshman Joo, a Kashmiri Hindu, helped revive both the scholarly and yogic streams of Kashmir Shaivism.Kashmir Shaivism, The Secret Supreme, Revealed by Lakshmanjoo His contribution is enormous. He inspired a generation of scholars who made Kashmir Shaivism a legitimate field of inquiry within the academy."Foreword", Lance E. Nelson in Self Realization in Kashmir Shaivism, John Hughes, pp.xxii-ivConsciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism, Swami Shankarananda pp. 47-8
Acharya Rameshwar Jha, is often credited with establishing the roots of Kashmir Shaivism in the learned community of Varanasi. Rameshwar Jha with his creativity, familiarity with the ancient texts and personal experiences provided access to concepts of non-dualistic Kashmir Shaivism. His writings of Sanskrit verses have been published as the books Purnta PratyabhijnaPratyabhijna Press Varanasi, Publishers Arun Krishna Joshi, Vijay Krishna Joshi, Nichi bag Varanasi and Samit Swatantram.
Lilian Silburn (1908–1993) was a French Indologist specialising in Kashmir Shaivism, Tantra and Buddhism. Working together with Louis Renou, she translated from Sanskrit and published the core scriptures of Kashmir Shaivism, including Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, and others, many being first-ever translations of the recently discovered texts. Silburn, a student of Lakshman Joo, authored Kundalini: The Energy of the Depths, A Comprehensive Study Based on the Scriptures of Kasmir Saivism (Shaiva Traditions of Kashmir, State University of New York Press, 1988).
Swami Muktananda, although not belonging to the direct lineage of Kashmir Shaivism, felt an affinity for the teachings, validated by his own direct experience.Lal Ded: The great Kashmiri Saint-poetess, Proceedings of the National Seminar Conducted by Kashmir Education, Culture and Science Society. p12Play of Consciousness – A Spiritual Autobiography, Swami Muktananda, p117 He encouraged Motilal Banarsidass to publish Jaideva Singh's translations of Shiva Sutras, Pratyabhijnahrdayam, Spanda Karikas and Vijnana Bhairava, all of which Singh studied in-depth with Lakshman Joo.Swami Durgananda,‘To See the World Full of Saints’ in Meditation Revolution, Brooks, Durgananda et al, pp96-97Siva Sutras – The Yoga of Supreme Identity, Jaideva Singh p iv He also introduced Kashmir Shaivism to a wide audience of western meditators through his writings and lectures on the subject.Swami Durgananda, ‘To See the World Full of Saints’ in Meditation Revolution, Brooks, Durgananda et al, pp.96-97Secret of the Siddhas, Swami Muktananda, Chapters 9-37
The Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra, was introduced to the West by Paul Reps, a student of Lakshman Joo, by including an English translation in his book Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Cast as a discourse between the god Shiva and his consort Devi or Shakti, it presents 112 meditation methods or centering techniques (dharanas).Paul Reps, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones, A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings ()
The four key Trika mandalas from Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka, previously considered indecipherable, were translated, decoded and illustrated by Christian de Vietri in his 2024 book titled Trika Maṇḍala Prakāśa.
Texts In general, the whole written tradition of Kashmir Shaivism can be divided in three fundamental parts: Āgama Śāstra, Spanda Śāstra and Pratyabhijñā Śāstra.The Trika Shaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pag. IX