The Nazca culture (also Nasca) was the archaeological culture that flourished from beside the arid, southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and the Ica Valley.The Nasca by Helaine Silverman and Donald A. Proulx. Blackwell Publishers. Malden. 2002. Strongly influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, who are known for their extremely complex textiles, the Nazca produced an array of crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs.
They are known for two extensive construction projects that would have required the coordination of large groups of laborers: the Nazca lines, immense designs in the desert whose purpose is unknown, and puquios, underground aqueducts for providing water for irrigation and domestic purposes in the arid environment, several dozen of which still function today. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people.
History
Time frame Nazca society developed during the Early Intermediate Period and is generally divided into the Proto Nazca (phase 1, 100 BC – 1 AD), the Early Nazca (phases 2–4, 1–450 AD), Middle Nazca (phase 5, 450–550 AD) and Late Nazca (phases 6–7, 550–750 AD) cultures."Ceramic Production in Ancient Nasca: Provenance Analysis of Pottery from the Early Nasca and Tiza Cultures Through INNA" by Kevin J. Vaughn, Journal of Archaeological Science (2006), Volume 33, Issue 5: 681–689
Decline and fall of the civilization From 500 AD, the civilization started to decline and by 750 AD the civilization had fallen completely. This is thought to have occurred when an El Niño triggered widespread and destructive flooding. Evidence also suggests that the Nazca people may have exacerbated the effects of these floods by gradually cutting down Prosopis pallida trees to make room for maize and cotton agriculture. These trees play an extremely important role as the ecological keystone of this landscape: in particular preventing river and wind erosion. Gradual removal of trees would have exposed the landscape to the effects of climate perturbations such as El Niño, leading to erosion and leaving irrigation systems high and dry."The Role of Prosopis in Ecological and Landscape Change in the Samaca Basin, Lower Ica Valley, South Coast Peru from the Early Horizon to the Late Intermediate Period " by Beresford-Jones, D., S. Arce, O.Q. Whaley and A. Chepstow-Lusty (2009). Latin American Antiquity Vol. 20 pp. 303–330
Society
Social structure Early Nazca society was made up of local chiefdoms and regional centers of power that developed around Cahuachi, a non-urban ceremonial site of earthwork mounds and plazas."Cahuachi: New Evidence for an Early Nasca Ceremonial Role" by Lidio M. Valdez, Current Anthropology 35, no. 5 (December 1994): 675–679 Scholars have developed theories resulting from various excavations at Cahuachi. They suggest that this site was the center for rituals and feasting relating to agriculture, water, and fertility.
Cahuachi lies in the lower portion of the Nazca Valley and was initially occupied during the late Paracas phase. It is unique among all other Nazca sites in the region, and it is the most important site for the study of ancient Nazca culture. The people modified the natural huacas (hills) into pyramid mounds for ceremonial and religious purposes.
Excavations at Cahuachi have given archaeologists key insights into the culture. The material remains found at the site included large amounts of polychrome pottery, plain and fancy textiles, trace amounts of gold and spondylus shells, and an array of ritual paraphernalia. The remains of pottery found at Cahuachi led archaeologists to believe that the site was specifically non-urban and ceremonial in nature. The ratio of plain, utilitarian pottery to fine, polychrome pottery was 30% to 70%."Cahuachi: Non-Urban Cultural Complexity on the South Coast of Peru" by Helaine Silverman, Journal of Field Archaeology (1988), Volume 15, No. 4:403–430 If it was an urban center, the proportion of utilitarian ceramics would have probably been higher. Among the foodstuffs found were the Three Sisters: maize, squash, and beans; as well as peanuts, and some fish.
Construction at Cahuachi ceased. It appears that Cahuachi was abandoned at the very end of Nazca 3/early Nazca 4. Although there are many possible reasons for the collapse of Cahuachi, most scholars believe that the cessation of ceremonial use of the site is associated with the pan-Andean drought. Later (post-Cahuachi) Nazca society was structured in a similar fashion as before, but there was less emphasis on constructing large architectural complexes such as those at Cahuachi.
Religion Likely related to the arid and extreme nature of the environment, Nazca religious beliefs were based upon agriculture and fertility. Much of Nazca art depicts powerful nature gods, such as the killer whale, the harvesters, the mythical spotted cat, the serpentine creature and, the most prevalent of worshiped figures, the anthropomorphic mythical being. Much as in the contemporary Moche culture based in northwest Peru. Many Nazca traditions originated from their predecessors, the Paracas culture, which flourished 700–800 years ago in the same coastal region in southern Peru.Domnauer, Colin. “The Legume Pod Motif as a Symbolic Representation of the Shamanic Hallucinogen, Vilca (Anadenanthera Spp.), in Pre-Columbian Andean Cultures.” Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology 40, no. 2 (2020): 163–73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48594697. Shamans apparently used hallucinogenic drugs, such as extractions from the 'San Pedro cactus' (Echinopsis pachanoi), to induce visions. The Nazca used another hallucinogenic plant called Anadenanthera, this plant's seeds were ground down and snuffed through a pipe. The use of such substances is also depicted in art found on pottery related to the Nazca. However, interpretations of these symbols remain debated; exact archeological evidence of psychoactive plants is very limited. Religious events and ceremonies took place in Cahuachi. The people worshiped the nature gods to aid in the growth of agriculture.
Shamanistic elements with the Nazca are prominent. Scholars point to Nazca ceramics and textiles, interpreted as altered states of consciousness along with masked beings, possibly representing ritual specialists undergoing transformation.
During this time, all members of the society in surrounding villages would migrate to the center and participate in feasting as well. Non-elites could obtain highly valued goods, such as fancy polychrome pottery, through feasting. In exchange, the elites could enhance their political power and status while co-opting the commoners into labor and construction of the site.
Trophy heads The Nazca used severed heads, known as trophy heads, in various religious rituals and appear as a motif in ceramic iconography. Visual depictions of decapitations often associate the decapitators with weapons and military-like dress, but such garments could have been worn in purely ceremonial circumstances as well."The Body Context: Interpreting Early Nasca Decapitation Burials" DeLeonardis, Lisa. Latin American Antiquity. 2000. Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 363–368.
The term 'trophy head' was coined by archaeologist Max Uhle, who considered the depiction of severed heads in ancient Peruvian art to correspond to trophies of warfare. Researchers noted that all the heads had one modification in common: a hole in the forehead through which a rope could be affixed, presumably so that the severed head can be displayed or carried. This detail contributed to the consensus that these were trophy heads."A Cache of 48 Nasca Trophy Heads From Cerro Carapo, Peru" by David Browne, Helaine Silverman, and Ruben Garcia, Latin American Antiquity (1993), Volume 4, No. 3: 274–294 Other common modifications were the base of the skull being broken and thorns closing the mouth. Over 100 of the heads that have been discovered were mummified, which is unique to the Nazca and the preceding Paracas Culture.
Many burials of Nazca individuals are what is known as 'partial burials'. Partial burials typically include bundles of limbs, caches of severed heads, or bodies that are missing several parts. Several burials have been discovered in which the head of the skeleton is missing and is replaced with what is most commonly referred to as a 'head jar'. The head jar is a ceramic vessel with a human head painted on it, along with trees and plants sprouting from the head which is known as the Sprouting Head motif. The actual appearance of the head jars can vary majorly with some having the appearance of trophy heads and others potentially be a portrait of the person buried there.
Early Nazca period ceramics indicate that the initial purpose of trophy heads may have been related to agriculture, with iconography, such as the Sprouting Head, showing trophy heads and plants growing and some of the plants were in the shape of the trophy heads. The burial of the heads suggests that the trophy heads may have been from Nazca people and not from other people. During the Middle Nazca period, the number of severed heads appeared to have increased, perhaps due to a pan-Andean drought. In the late Nazca period, the number of trophy heads reaches its peak with the skulls having an increase in damage to the skull when compared to previous periods. During the Middle Nazca period, the number of severed heads appeared to have increased dramatically, judging from the remains. In the late Nazca period, the number tapered off, although the practice of decapitation remained popular in this period. Late Nazca iconography suggests that the prestige of the leaders of Late Nazca society was enhanced by successful headhunting.
Economy
Nazca subsistence was based largely on agriculture. Iconography on ceramics and excavated remains indicate that the Nazca people had a varied diet, composed of maize, squash, sweet potato, manioc and achira, and a small trace of various fish. They also used several non-food crops, such as cotton for textiles, coca, San Pedro cactus, and gourds. The latter were decorated to illustrate activities in daily life.
The evidence of coca in society can be seen through remains but also in designs on ceramics. Similarly, the hallucinogenic San Pedro cactus has been illustrated in ceremonies on several polychrome pots and bowls. In terms of animal resources, the Nazca made sacrifices of llamas and guinea pigs at Cahuachi. Llamas were also commonly exploited as pack animals, shorn for their wool, and consumed as a source of meat.
Based on archaeological evidence, sometime during the Middle Nazca period, the Nazca people created an aqueduct system to sustain life in the exceedingly arid environment. The exact date of construction of the puquios has been debated for some time. Dating of the puquios is quite difficult because of the materials involved in their construction. Attempts at dating the trenches have also been difficult as the puquios were found by excavation. This destroyed the early context by which their dates might have been interpreted."The Puquios of Nasca", Schreiber, Katharina J. and Rojas, Josue Lancho. (1995) Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 229–254.
The most promising techniques used to date them thus far has been the AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) analysis of varnish that has collected on the rocks inside the puquios, as well as the study of settlement patterns in the area."New Chronometric Dates for the Puquios of Nasca, Peru", Clarkson, Persis B. and Dorn, Ronald I. (1995) Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 56–69. These techniques have placed the original construction of the puquios at the Middle Nazca period, as indicated above.