Heterosynaptic plasticity is a form of synaptic plasticity, in which changes in synaptic strength are induced by activity at neighboring synapses or by modulatory inputs, rather than by activity at the synapse itself.Purves, D., Augustine, G.J., Fitzpatrick, D., Hall, W.C., LaMantia, A.S., White, L.E. (2012). Synaptic Plasticity. In Neuroscience (5th ed.) (pp. 163-182). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. Synaptic plasticity more broadly refers to activity-dependent changes in the strength of connections between neurons and is widely associated with learning and memory. In contrast, to homosynaptic (Hebbian) plasticity, which is input-specific, heterosynaptic plasticity involves changes driven by external or modulatory signals and can result in either synaptic potentiation or depression. Heterosynaptic mechanisms have been implicated in processes such as synaptic homeostasis, neural circuit development, and associative learning. Bailey, C.H., Giustetto, M., Huang, Y.Y., Hawkins, R.D., Kandel, E.R. (2000) Is heterosynaptic modulation essential for stabilizing Hebbian plasticity and memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1:1, 11-20. These mechanisms enable neural systems to integrate multiple sources of activity while maintaining stability and flexibility in network function.
Modulatory input-dependent plasticity (Heterosynaptic Plasticity) Exemplified
Modulatory input-dependent plasticty is a form of heterosynaptic plasticity mediated by neuromodulation, in which modulatory neurons release neuromodulators that alter synaptic function. Unlike classical neurotransmitters, neuromodulators typically do not directly produce fast electrical responses in target neurons. Instead, they modify the efficacy of neurotransmission at nearby synapses, often producing longer-lasting effects. These modulatory influences can result in either synaptic potentiation or depression and are often regulated by metaplasticity, in which prior synaptic activity alters the capacity for future plastic changes.
Several neurotransmitters can function as neuromodulators, particularly biogenic amines such as dopamine and serotonin. Their effects are commonly mediated through G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs), although ionotropic mechanisms may also occur depending on the neuronal context. Activation of these pathways can influence synaptic transmission by altering factors such as neurotransmitter release probability or postsynaptic responsiveness.
The use of these neuromodulators is an example of heterosynaptic plasticity, as these signals originate from neurons that are not directly involved in the active synapse. Neuromodulators, often released by interneurons, can influence communication efficiency between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons indirectly by altering neurotransmitter release probability. This process does not directly trigger postsynaptic activation but instead modifies synaptic strength through modulatory input. Examples include serotonergic modulation in Aplysia californica and dopaminergic signaling in other neural systems.
Aplysia californica
In Aplysia californica, modulatory interneurons release serotonin, which can induce synaptic plasticity in motor neurons. Aplysia californica is a commonly used model organism for studying synaptic plasticity and neural signaling due to its relatively simple nervous system, which allows individual neural circuits to be identified and studied. Work by Eric Kandel and colleagues, using Aplysia contributed to the understanding that learning and memory are associated with long-term synaptic strength changes in the brain.
Early studies in Aplysia demonstrated both heterosynaptic plasticity and neuromodulation through behavioral paradigms such as habituation and sensitization. Habituation, which is associated with synaptic depression, and sensitization, which is associated with synaptic facilitation, were observed by measuring the gill withdrawal reflex in response to tactile stimulation. Light touch to the siphon activates sensory neurons, while repeated stimulation leads to a reduced response over time.
Mechanical stimulation of the siphon (see figure), activates sensory neurons, producing excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) in motor neurons that drive the gill withdrawal reflex. With repeated stimulation, habituation occurs, leading to reduced synaptic efficacy at the sensory-motor neuron synapse and decreased EPSPs, resulting in a diminished behavioral response. This process involves depression at the glutamatergic sensory-motor synapse and reflects reduced synaptic transmission underlying habituation. Conversely, noxious stimulation, such as stimulation of the tail, produces sensitization of the gill contraction response. This stimulus activates modulatory interneurons that release serotonin onto siphon neurons, enhancing neurotransmitter release and increasing EPSPs in motor neurons. When noxious stimulation is paired with light touch to the siphon, the resulting facilaition can persist beyond the initial stimulus. Compared to other forms of short-term synaptic plasticity, these neuromodulatory effects can last for longer periods, and repeated pairing can lead to more persistent changes in synaptic strength. These findings provide evidence for heterosynaptic strengthening between sensory and motor neurons in Aplysia neural circuits.
Dopaminergic synapses Heterosynaptic plasticity is not limited to serotonergic systems and can involve a range of neuromodulators, including neuropeptides, cannabinoids, and nitric oxide. Dopamine is a well-characterized neuromodulator that can influence synaptic plasticity through heterosynaptic mechanisms. Like serotonin receptors in Aplysia, dopamine receptors are primarily G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can activate intracellular signaling pathways such as cyclic AMP (cAMP). In mammalian systems, dopamine is released from modulatory neurons and can alter synaptic efficacy at nearby synapses without directly driving postsynaptic activity. This form of signaling is consistent with heterosynaptic plasticity, as dopamine modulates communication between other neurons rather than acting at the active synapse itself. In both dopaminergic and GABAergic circuits, dopamine can influence synaptic transmission and plasticity through these indirect mechanisms. Dopamine-dependent heterosynaptic plasticity is often associated with long-term depression, (LTD), particularly through activation of D1-like receptors, which contribute to the induction and regulation of synaptic weakening.Ishikawa, M., Otaka, M., Huang, Y. H., Neumann, P. A., Winters, B. D., Grace, A. A., Schlüter, O. M., and Dong, Y. (2013). Dopamine Triggers Heterosynaptic Plasticity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33(16), 6759-6765.Sajikumar, S., Frey, J. U. (2004). Late-associativity, Synaptic tagging, and the Role of Dopamine during LTP and LTD. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82 (1), 12-25. These mechanisms have been studied in brain regions such as the ventral segmental area and nucleus accumbent, where dopamine signaling plays a role in shaping synaptic responses. Overall, dopaminergic signaling provides an example of how neuromodulators can both regulate and induce changes in synaptic strength through heterosynaptic processes.
Heterosynaptic Plasticity's Homeostatic role Heterosynaptic plasticity may play an important homeostatic role in neural plasticity by normalizing or limiting the total change of synaptic input during ongoing Hebbian plasticity.Royer, S., and Paré, D. (2003). Conservation of total synaptic weight through balanced synaptic depression and potentiation. Nature 422, 518–522. Hebbian plasticity, an ubiquitous form of homosynaptic, associative plasticity, is believed to underlie learning and memory. Moreover, Hebbian plasticity is induced by and amplifies correlations in neural circuits which creates a positive feedback loop and renders neural circuits unstable. To avoid too much instability Hebbian plasticity needs to be constrained,Miller, K.D., and MacKay, D.J. (1994). The role of constraints in Hebbian learning. Neural Comput 6, 100–126. for instance by the conservation of the total amount of synaptic input. This role is believed to be fulfilled by a diversity of homeostatic mechanisms.
However, to effectively stabilize Hebbian plasticity, which can be induced in a matter of seconds to minutes, homeostatic plasticity has to react rapidly.Zenke, F., Hennequin, G., and Gerstner, W. (2013). Synaptic Plasticity in Neural Networks Needs Homeostasis with a Fast Rate Detector. PLoS Comput Biol 9, e1003330. This requirement, however, is not met by most forms of homeostatic plasticity, which typically act on timescales of hours, days or longer.Turrigiano, G.G., and Nelson, S.B. (2004). Homeostatic plasticity in the developing nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci 5, 97–107.Zenke, F., Gerstner, W., and Ganguli, S. (2017). The temporal paradox of Hebbian learning and homeostatic plasticity. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 43, 166–176. This limitation does not seem to apply to heterosynaptic plasticity.Chen, J.-Y., Lonjers, P., Lee, C., Chistiakova, M., Volgushev, M., and Bazhenov, M. (2013). Heterosynaptic Plasticity Prevents Runaway Synaptic Dynamics. J Neurosci 33, 15915–15929.Chistiakova, M., Bannon, N.M., Chen, J.-Y., Bazhenov, M., and Volgushev, M. (2015). Homeostatic role of heterosynaptic plasticity: models and experiments. Front Comput Neurosci 9, 89.
To achieve a homeostatic effect, and limit synapse instability, heterosynaptic plasticity serves its homeostatic role through pathway unspecific synaptic changes in the opposite direction of Hebbian plasticity. In other words, whenever homosynaptic long-term potentiation is induced at a given synapse, other unstimulated synapses should be depressed.Lynch, G.S., Dunwiddie, T., and Gribkoff, V. (1977). Heterosynaptic depression: a postsynaptic correlate of long-term potentiation. Nature 266, 737–739. Conversely, homosynaptic long-term depression would cause other synapses to potentiate in a manner which keeps the average synaptic weight approximately conserved. The scope of these changes could be global or compartmentalized in the dendrites. This theory of balancing the approximate dendritic activity locally, was proposed by Rabinowitch and Segev, and has been further exemplified by hippocampal neurons and neurons in the amygdala.
Developmental Plasticity