The indigenous languages of the Americas form various linguistic areas or that share various common (areal) traits. The following list of linguistic areas is primarily based on Campbell (1997, 2024).
Overview The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds helps historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer, which was published as Sherzer (1976).
Lyle Campbell (1997) lists over 20 linguistic areas,Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 9 Linguistic Areas of the Americas, pp. 330–352. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . many of which are still hypothetical.
Note: Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.
Linguistic Area (Sprachbund) Included families, branches, and languages Northern Northwest CoastMay be a subarea of the Northern Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final syntax. Eskimo-Aleut, Haida, Eyak, Tlingit Northwest CoastCharacterized by elaborate consonant systems Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Takelma, Lower Chinook PlateauCharacterized by glottal stops Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala language, Klamath, Kutenai, Interior Salishan Northern California Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Maiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana, (Washo) Clear Lake Lake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, Wappo South Coast Range Chumash, Esselen, Salinan Southern California–Western Arizona Yuman, Cupan (Uto-Aztecan), less extensively Takic (Uto-Aztecan) Great BasinMay be a subarea of the Northern California Linguistic Area. Numic (Uto-Aztecan), Washo Pueblo Keresan, Tanoan, Zuni, Hopi, some Apachean branches Plains Athabaskan, Algonquian, Siouan, Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, Tonkawa Northeast Winnebago (Siouan), Northern Iroquoian, Eastern Algonquian Southeast ("Gulf") Muskogean, Chitimacha, Atakapa, Tunica language, Natchez, Yuchi, Ofo (Siouan), Biloxi (Siouan) – sometimes also Tutelo, Catawban, Quapaw, Dhegiha (all Siouan); Tuscarora, Cherokee, Shawnee Mesoamerican Aztecan (Nahua branch of Uto-Aztecan), Mixe–Zoquean, Mayan, Xincan, Otomanguean (except Chichimeco–Jonaz and some Pame varieties, Totonacan), Purépecha, Cuitlatec, Tequistlatecan, Huave MayanOften included in the Mesoamerican sprachbund Mayan, Xincan, Lencan, Jicaquean Colombian–Central AmericanCharacterized by SOV word order and postpositions Chibchan, Misumalpan, Mangue, Subtiaba; sometimes Lencan, Jicaquean, Chochoan, Betoi Venezuelan–AntilleanCharacterized by VO word order (instead of SOV) Arawakan, Cariban, Guamo, Otomaco, Yaruro, Warao AndeanCharacterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, Chipaya Ecuadorian–Colombian (subarea of Andean) Páez, Guambiano (Paezan), Cuaiquer, Cayapa, Colorado (Barbacoan), Camsá, Cofán, Esmeralda, Ecuadorian Quechua Orinoco–Amazon Yanomaman, Piaroa (Sálivan), Arawakan/Maipurean, Cariban, Jotí, Uruak/Ahuaqué, Sapé (Kaliana), Máku Amazon Arawakan/Maipurean, Arauan/Arawan, Cariban, Chapacuran, Ge/Je, Panoan, Puinavean, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tupian Southern Cone Mapudungun (Araucanian), Guaycuruan, Chon
Lexical diffusion Pache, et al. (2016)Pache, Matthias, Søren Wichmann, and Mikhail Zhivlov. 2016. Words for ‘dog’ as a diagnostic of language contact in the Americas. In: Berez-Kroeker, Andrea L., Diane M. Hintz and Carmen Jany (eds.), Language Contact and Change in the Americas: Studies in Honor of Marianne Mithun, 385-409. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. note that the word ‘dog’Key, Mary Ritchie & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) 2015. The Intercontinental Dictionary Series. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Entry: dog. is shared across various unrelated language families of the Americas, and use this word as a case study of lexical diffusion due to trade and contact.
In California, identical roots for ‘dog’ are found in:Note: Forms marked preceded by asterisks are proto-language reconstructions. Yurok cʼišah, Karuk čišiːh, Takelma cʼíxi, Yokuts *cʼɨːsas Chimariko šičela, Wintu se-cilaː ‘to tear apart’ Wintun *suku, Maiduan *sɨː, Washo súkuʔ, Miwok *hayu, Costanoan (Awaswas and Chocheño; Chocheño has the form čukuti). Pache, et al. (2016) posit a Wintun origin for this root. *hayu root in Miwok, Pomoan, Wappo, and Hill Patwin Ramaytush puku, Uto-Aztecan *punku Costanoan (Mutsun xučekniṣ, Chalon xučekniṣ, and Rumsen xučːiys), Esselen hučumas (term borrowed from Costanoan; native terms are šošo and šanašo), Salinan (Antoniaño Salinan xuč (pl. xostén) and Migueleño Salinan xučaːi), Chumash (Ineseño Chumash huču, likely borrowed from Salinan)
In South America, a root for ‘dog’ is shared by Uru-Chipayan (paku or paqu) and several unrelated neighboring languages of lowland Bolivia (Movima pako, Itonama u-paʔu, and Trinitario paku), as well as Guaicuruan (Mocoví, Toba, and Pilagá pioq). An identical root for ‘dog’ is also shared by Huastec (*sul) and Atakapa (šul), which are very geographically distant from each other although both are located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. Areal words for ‘dog’ are also shared across the U.S. Southeast (Karankawa keš ~ kes, Chitimacha kiš, Cotoname kissa ‘fox’, Huavean *kisɨ), as well as across Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican areal words for ‘dog’ diffused unidirectionally from certain language families to others, and are listed below: Proto-Mixe-Zoquean *ʔuku > Proto-Zapotec *kweʔkkoʔ (Ixtlán Zapotec beʔkoʔ) > Huastec pik’oʔ, Yucatec pè:k’ P’urhépecha wiču > Chontal wičuʔ Totonacan čiči(ʔ) > Classical Nahuatl čiči North America Northern Northwest Coast
This linguistic area was proposed by Jeff Leer (1991), and may be a subarea of the Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final (XSOV) syntax. Languages are Aleut, Haida, Eyak, and Tlingit.
Leer (1991) considers the strong areal traits to be: lack of labial obstruents promiscuous number marking periphrastic possessive construction
Northwest Coast
This linguistic area is characterized by elaborate consonant systems. Languages are Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Takelma, and Lower Chinook. Phonological areal traits include:
Series of glottalized stops and affricates Labiovelars Multiple laterals s/š opposition c/č opposition voiceless uvular stop q one fricative series, which is voiceless velar fricatives highly limited inventory of labial consonants large inventory of uvular consonants limited vowel systems
Typical shared morphological traits include: reduplication processes: including iterative, continuative, progressive, plural, collective numeral classifiers alienable/inalienable oppositions in nouns pronominal plural nominal plural verbal reduplication signifying distribution, repetition, etc. suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs verbal evidential markers locative-directional markers in the verb visibility/invisibility opposition in demonstratives nominal and verbal reduplication signaling the diminutive passive-like constructions (except for Tlingit) negative appearing as the first element in a clause regardless of the usual word order lexically paired singular and plural verb stems
Plateau
The Plateau linguistic area includes Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala language, Klamath, Kutenai, and Interior Salishan. Primary shared phonological features of this linguistic area include: glottalized stops velar/uvular contrasting series multiple laterals
Other less salient shared traits are: labiovelars one fricative series velar (and uvular) fricatives series of glottalized resonants (sonorants) contrasting with plain resonants (except in Sahaptin, Cayuse, Molala, and Kiksht) word-medial and word-final consonant clusters of four or more consonants (except in Kiksht, and uncertain in Cayuse and Molala) vowel systems of only 3 or 4 vowel positions (except Nez Perce, which has 5) vowel-length contrast size-shape-affective sound symbolism involving consonantal interchanges pronominal plural nominal plural prefixation of subject person markers of verbs suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs several kinds of reduplication (except in Nicola) numeral classifiers (shared by Salishan and Sahaptian languages) locative-directional markers in verbs different roots of the singular and the plural for various actions, such as 'sit', 'stand', 'take' (except in Kutenai and Lillooet, uncertain in Cayuse and Molala) quinary-decimal numerical system (Haruo Aoki 1975)
Northern California The Northern California linguistic area consists of many Hokan languages. Languages include Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Maiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana, (Washo).
Features of this linguistic area have been described by Mary Haas. They include: rarity of uvular consonants: they occur in Klamath, Wintu, Chimariko, and Pomoan retroflexed stops rarity of a distinct series of voiced stops except in the east–west strip of languages including Kashaya Pomo, Wintu-Patwin, and Maidu (this series contains implosion in Maidu) consonant sound symbolism: in Yurok, Wiyot, Hupa, Tolowa, Karuk, and Yana
Washo, spoken in the Great Basin area, shares some traits common to the Northern California linguistic area. pronominal dual quinary/decimal numeral system absence of vowel-initial syllables free stress
Northwest California Northwest California is a subarea of the Northern California linguistic area. It includes Wiyot (Algic), Yurok (Algic), Hupa (Athabaskan), and Karuk (language isolate).
Central California Golla (2011: 247–248) notes that Esselen shares typological features with Utian, Miwok, Costanoan, such as "the absence of a glottalized series, and ... a relatively analytic morphosyntax", which are also similar to typological features found in Northern Uto-Aztecan languages. He suggests that there was a linguistic area that stretched from the Sierra Nevada through Sacramento, and from the San Joaquin Delta to the San Francisco Bay.Golla, Victor. 2011. California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Shaul (2014: 203–207) also proposes typological connections between Esselen, Salinan, Chumashan, some Utian languages, and Uto-Aztecan.Shaul, David L. 2014. A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Similarities between Utian and various neighboring language families have also been noted by Callaghan (2014).Callaghan, Catherine A. 2014. Proto Utian Grammar and Dictionary, with Notes on Yokuts. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Clear Lake Clear Lake is clearly a linguistic area, and is centered around Clear Lake, California. Languages are Lake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, and Wappo. Shared features include:
retroflexed dentals voiceless l (ɬ) glottalized glides 3 series of stops
South Coast Range Languages in Sherzer's (1976) "Yokuts-Salinan-Chumash" area (also known as the "South Coast Range" linguistic area), which includes Chumash, Esselen, and Salinan, share the following traits.
3 series of stops - also in the Clear Lake area retroflexed sounds - also in the Clear Lake area glottalized resonants (sonorants) prefixation of verbal subject markers) presence of /h, ɨ, c, ŋ/ in the Greater South Coast Range area t/ṭ (retroflex/non-retroflex) contrast in the Greater South Coast Range area, as well as other parts of California