Han Xin (; 231 March 196 BCVol. 12 of Zizhi Tongjian and Liu Bang's biography in Han Shu dated Han Xin's death to the 1st month of the 11th year of Liu Bang's reign (including his tenure as King of Han); the month corresponds to 19 Feb to 20 Mar 196 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar. However, Liu Bang's biography in Shiji dated Han's death to the spring (1st to 3rd months) of that year; the period corresponds to 19 Feb to 18 May 196 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar. In the modified Zhuanxu calendar used during the era, the 11th year of Liu Bang's reign starts from 23 Nov 197 BCE and ends on 11 Nov 196 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar.) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three prominences of the early Han dynasty" (), along with Zhang Liang and Xiao He.
Han Xin is best remembered as one of the most brilliant military commanders in Chinese history, renowned for his exceptional strategic intellect and tactical mastery. His innovative use of deception, maneuver warfare, and battlefield psychology set new standards in military art, with several of his campaigns serving as textbook examples of effective command. Han Xin's application of warfare principles not only exemplified but at times expanded upon the teachings of The Art of War, with some of his tactics giving rise to enduring Chinese idioms. Undefeated in every engagement he commanded, his victories were instrumental in the founding of the Han dynasty. For his extraordinary accomplishments, Han Xin earned the legendary title of "Xian of War" (兵仙) in later Chinese tradition.
In recognition of Han Xin's contributions, Liu Bang conferred the titles of "King of Qi" on him in 203 BCE and "King of Chu" in the following year. However, Liu Bang feared Han Xin's growing influence and gradually reduced his power, demoting him to "Marquis of Huaiyin"In Shiji, Han Xin's biography was given this title, while the biography of Xin of Han was titled "Han Xin". in late 202 BCE. In early 196 BCE, Han Xin was accused of participating in a rebellion, lured into a trap and executed in Hall of Zhong (鐘室), Changle Palace, on Empress Lü's orders, and his three clans were exterminated.
Early life
Commoner from Huaiyin
Han Xin was born in Huaiyin (modern-day Huai'an District, Huai'an Prefecture, Jiangsu Province), which was an area of Chu during the warring states. According to legend, he may have been a descendant of the Han clan of the Han Kingdom, but he was incredibly poor. The people from his hometown say that when his mother died, he did not have enough money to give her a proper burial. Regardless, he still searched until he came across a high and raised plot of land, thinking that one day, he could settle ten thousand households here to live and guard over his mother's grave.Because he was unable to obtain a government post nor become a merchant, he lived a life of destitution and was despised by those around him, as he often relied on others for his meals. He especially often went to the Chief of Pavillion (亭長) of Nanchang Pavilion for food, and as months passed the Chief's wife increasing began to hate Han Xin. At one point, she cooked and ate very early in the morning, so that when Han Xin arrived, there was no more food. Han Xin understood that he was no longer welcome and never visited them again.
Once, when he was suffering from hunger, he met an old woman washing clothes by the river who provided him food. She did so for all the dozen days that she had laundry to do. Han Xin was incredibly delighted and promised to heavily repay her for her kindness. She, however, scolded him, saying: "A young man such as you cannot feed himself. I take pity that you are a descendant of nobility and so I feed you. I did not do so expecting anything in return!"
A youngster from a butcher's family in Huaiyin would humiliate Han Xin, making fun of him by saying that despite Han Xin being tall and carrying around a sword, Han Xin was actually a coward. He said in front of a crowd: "If you do not fear death; stab me. If you fear death; come crawl between my legs." Han Xin gave it some thought, and eventually decided to crawl between the hooligan's legs. Because of this, he was mocked by all the town for his cowardice.
Several years later, after becoming the King of Chu, Han Xin returned to his hometown. He found the woman who fed him and rewarded her with 1,000 taels of gold. He found the Chief of Nanchang Pavilion and gave him a hundred coins, saying, "You are not a good person. You do good things but your generosity is limited." Han Xin also found the hooligan and appointed the hooligan as a zhongwei (中尉; equivalent to a present-day lieutenant). He to his subordinates: "This man is a hero. Do you think I could not have killed him when he humiliated me? I would not become famous even if I killed him then. Hence, I endured the humiliation to preserve my life to achieve great things in the future."
Service under Xiang Yu In 209 BC, Han Xin joined Xiang Liang's rebel army when rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty. Han Xin continued serving Xiang Yu (Xiang Liang's nephew) after Xiang Liang was killed in action at the Battle of Dingtao. He was not placed in high regard and worked as a langzhong (郎中; sometimes translated as Captain of the Palace Guards). He constantly proposed strategies to Xiang Yu but was ignored. During this time, he became well acquainted with Zhongli Mo, one of Xiang Yu's top generals.
In 206 BC, Han Xin deserted Xiang Yu's army and went to join Liu Bang.
War against Chu
Investiture as the commander-in-chief
Initially, after joining Liu Bang's army, Han Xin was not given any important roles. Once, he violated military law and was due to be punished by execution. When it was his turn to be beheaded, Han Xin saw Xiahou Ying (one of Liu Bang's trusted generals) and said, "I thought the King wanted to rule an empire. Why, then, is he killing valiant men?" Xiahou Ying was surprised by his words and his looks, and spared Han Xin's life. After conversing with Han Xin, Xiahou Ying was greatly delighted and recommended Han Xin to Liu Bang. Liu Bang was not overly impressed but made Han Xin the Commandant for Grains (治粟都尉) to be in charge of food supplies. During this time, Han Xin often met up with Xiao He (Liu Bang's Chancellor), who was greatly impressed by him.In April of that year, Liu Bang faced a mass desertion of soldiers. Han Xin figured that despite both Xiahou Ying and Xiao He having recommended him to Liu Bang, Liu Bang did not use him, so he saw no reason to stay and also deserted. When Xiao He heard that Han Xin had left, he immediately rushed to personally find Han Xin and bring him back, and did not manage to inform Liu Bang in time. Xiao He eventually caught up with Han Xin and managed to persuade Han Xin to go back with him. This event gave rise to the saying, "Xiao He chases Han Xin under the moonlight" (). In the meantime, Liu Bang had a nervous breakdown after hearing that Xiao He had left him. When Xiao He returned after a few days, while Liu Bang was relieved, he was also furious. He angrily asked Xiao He, "Why did you run away?" Xiao He explained, "I did not run away; I was chasing down Han Xin." Liu Bang got angry again, saying, "There were dozens of deserters, yet you did not chase after them. When you say that you chased after Han Xin, you must be lying to me." Xiao He then explained Han Xin's talent and forcibly insisted that Liu Bang immediately promote Han Xin to the highest rank in the army, the Grand General (大將軍). Xiao He also chided Liu Bang's usual ill-mannered behaviour, demanding that Liu Bang hold a formal ceremony for the event. Liu Bang relented and held a special ceremony for Han Xin's appointment.
Reconquering the Three Qins
After the ceremony, Han Xin analysed the situation for Liu Bang and devised a plan to conquer Xiang Yu's Western Chu kingdom. In late 206 BCE, Liu Bang's forces left Hanzhong and prepared to attack the Three Qins in Guanzhong. Han Xin ordered some soldiers to pretend to repair the gallery roads linking Guanzhong and Hanzhong, while sending another army to secretly pass through Chencang and make a surprise attack on Zhang Han. Zhang Han was caught off guard and the Han forces emerged victorious, proceeding to take over Sima Xin and Dong Yi's kingdoms. The strategy employed by Han Xin, known as mingxiu zhandao, andu Chencang (明修棧道, 暗度陳倉; lit. "appearing to repair the gallery roads while making secret advances through Chencang"), later became one of the Thirty-Six Stratagems.
Crushing other kingdoms
Although the Guanzhong region had not yet been fully pacified, the overall situation was already settled. The King of Han, Liu Bang, therefore personally led his main army out through Hangu Pass, stationing his forces at Shan County (west of today's Sanmenxia, Henan), where he set about pacifying the people east of the passes. At this time, Zhang Liang, Minister of State of Han, Zhang Er, King of Changshan, and Shen Yang, King of Henan, successively came over to submit to Liu Bang, greatly strengthening the Han camp.
With Zhang Liang at the center, devising strategy and planning operations, Liu Bang felt that he could manage even without Han Xin. Thus, in the eleventh month he returned to Guanzhong, revoked Han Xin's command authority, and redeployed his forces and generals. Liu Bang himself led the main Han army together with the troops of the surrendering feudal lords eastward to campaign against Western Chu. Xiao He and Han Xin, one civil and one military, remained behind to guard Guanzhong: Xiao He was responsible for restoring local administration, reviving production, and levying men from among the former Qin populace to form a new army, while Han Xin was tasked with training this new force and eliminating the remaining troops of the former Qin kings.
Liu Bang then allied with the other eighteen feudal lords and, while Xiang Yu was still in the state of Qi, led a coalition army of 560,000 men in 205 BCE to seize Xiang Yu's capital, Pengcheng. Xiang Yu hurried back to Pengcheng with 30,000 troops. Liu Bang was unable to withstand him and suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pengcheng, retreating to Xingyang. Xiao He immediately mobilized the elderly, the infirm, and those not yet registered for service in Guanzhong and led them to rendezvous with the King of Han at Xingyang. Han Xin gathered scattered soldiers and also joined Liu Bang. Thereafter, Liu Bang ordered Guan Ying to reorganize the former Qin cavalry, appointing Li Bi and Luo Jia as his deputies. Liu Bang then appointed Guan Ying as Palace Grandee, with Li Bi and Luo Jia serving as Left and Right Colonels to assist him. Together they led the cavalry to engage the Chu cavalry east of Xingyang and succeeded in defeating Xiang Yu's forces.
The King of Wei, Wei Bao, defected to Chu and rebelled against Han. Liu Bang appointed Han Xin as Left Chancellor and entrusted him with command of the campaign against Wei. Cao Can served as infantry commander and Guan Ying as cavalry commander, both under Han Xin, and together they attacked Wei Bao. Wei Bao led his main forces to garrison Puban, blocking the Yellow River crossing at Linjin Pass. Han Xin deployed decoy troops and arrayed warships, feigning an attempt to cross at Linjin, while in fact leading his army to cross the river at Xiayang using wooden jars and earthenware containers. He then launched a surprise attack on the Wei capital, Anyang. Caught off guard, Wei Bao rushed out with his troops to meet Han Xin but was defeated; Han Xin pacified the territory of Wei, captured Wei Bao, and escorted him to Xingyang. Liu Bang subsequently established Hedong Commandery in the former Wei lands. After this campaign, Cao Can was granted the fief of Pingyang.