Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India. It is India's second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. The region that comprises the state has a long history dating back to approximately 1300–700 BCE, although the present-day state was not established until 1960 CE.

Prior to Indian independence, notable dynasties and entities that ruled the region included, in chronological order, the Asmaka, Vidarbha kingdom, Maurya Empire, Satavahana Empire, Vakataka dynasty, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Western Chalukya Empire, Seuna Yadava dynasty, Shilahara, Bahamani Sultanate, Deccan sultanates, Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, and British Raj. Ruins, monuments, tombs, forts, and places of worship left by these rulers are dotted around the state.

At the time of the Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, the region—along with the British-ruled areas of Bombay Presidency, and Central Provinces and Berar—included many British vassal states. Among these, the erstwhile Hyderabad State was the largest, and extended over many modern Indian states. Other states grouped under the Deccan States Agency included Kolhapur, Miraj, Sangli, Aundh, Bhor, and Sawantwadi. Following independence from the British in 1947 and a campaign to create a Marathi-speaking state in the 1950s, the state of Maharashtra was formed in 1960.

From the 4th century BCE until 875, Maharashtri Prakrit and its dialects were the dominant languages of the region. The Marathi language, which evolved from Maharashtri Prakrit, has been the common language since the 9th century. The oldest stone inscriptions in the Marathi language date to around 975 CE, and can be seen at the foot of the Lord Bahubali statue in the Jain temple at Shravanabelgola in modern-day Karnataka.

Early history

Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Jorwe culture (ca. 1300–700 BCE) have been discovered throughout the state.Upinder Singh (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p.232P. K. Basant (2012), The City and the Country in Early India: A Study of Malwa, pp. 92–96 The largest settlement discovered of the culture is at Daimabad, a Late Harappan site, which had a mud fortification during this period, as well as an elliptical temple with fire pits. Some settlements show evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes. In the Late Harappan period there was a large migration of people from Gujarat to northern Maharashtra.

Maharashtra was historically the name of a region which consisted of Aparanta, Vidarbha, Mulak, Assaka (Asmaka), and Kuntala. In ancient times, tribal communities of Bhil people inhabited this area, also known as Dandakaranya. Linguists and archeologists believe it is likely that Maharashtra was inhabited by Dravidian speakers during the middle Rigvedic period,Witzel, Michael (2000). "The Languages of Harappa". In Kenoyer, J.. Proceedings of the conference on the Indus civilization. as suggested by Dravidian names of places in Maharashtra.

Maharashtra region later became part of the Maurya Empire, with edicts of emperor Ashoka having been found in the region. Buddhism flourished during this period. Trade in Maharashtra flourished through international trade with the Greeks and later with the Roman Empire. Traders were the primary patrons of Buddhist monasteries.Margabandhu, C. "Trade Contacts between Western India and the Graeco-Roman World in the early centuries of the Christian era." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient/Journal de l'histoire economique et sociale de l'Orient (1965): 316-322.Rath, Jayanti. "Queens and Coins of India."Deo, S. B. "The Genesis of Maharashtra History and Culture." Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 43 (1984): 17-36. Indo-Sythian Western Satraps ruled part of the region during the early part of the first millennium.

Middle Kingdoms (200 BCE–13th century CE) During the Middle Kingdoms the region of present-day Maharashtra formed part of many states, including the Maurya Empire, Satavahana dynasty, Kadamba dynasty, Vakataka dynasty, Chalukya dynasty, and Rashtrakuta dynasty. Most of these empires extended over large swathes of Indian territory. Some of the greatest monuments in Maharashtra, such as the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves, were built during the time of these empires.

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE) Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd century BCE. One of the Major Rock Edicts of the Maurya king Ashoka was located at Sopara, near present-day Mumbai.The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the ... by Dilip K Chakrabarty p.32

Around 230 BCE, the Maharashtra region was taken over by the Satavahana dynasty, which ruled the area for the next 400 years.India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic: p.440 A notable ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated Scythian invaders. This dynasty mainly used the Prakrit language on their coins and the inscriptions on the walls of Buddhist monasteries.Sinopoli, C.M., 2001. On the edge of empire: Form and substance in the Satavahana dynasty. Empires: Perspectives from archaeology and history, p.163, 173.

The following Vakataka dynasty ruled from approximately 250 to 470 CE.

Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties

From the 6th century CE to the 8th century, the Chalukya dynasty ruled Maharashtra. Two prominent rulers were Pulakeshin II, who defeated the north Indian Emperor Harsha, and Vikramaditya II, who defeated Arab invaders in the 8th century. The name 'Maharashtra' appears on a 7th-century inscription by Pulakeshin II at Aihole proclaiming sovereignty over the "three Mahārāshtrakas with their 99,000 villages".Habib, Irfan, and Faiz Habib. "INDIA IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY — A SURVEY OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 60, 1999, pp. 89–128. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44144078. Accessed 18 Apr. 2023.

The Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 8th to the 10th century.Indian History - page B-57 The Arab traveler Sulaiman called Amoghavarsha, the ruler of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty, "one of the four great kings of the world".A Comprehensive History of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set): p.203 The Chalukya dynasty and Rashtrakuta dynasty had their capitals in modern-day Karnataka and used Kannada and Sanskrit as court languages.

Between 800 and 1200 CE, parts of Western Maharashtra, including the Konkan region, were ruled by different Shilahara houses based in North Konkan, South Konkan, and Kolhapur.Sovani, N.V., 1951. Social Survey of Kolhapur City Vol. Ii-Industry, Trade And Labour, pp=2-4 At different periods in their history, the Shilaharas served as the vassals of either the Rashtrakutas or the Chalukyas.

From the early 11th century to the 12th century the Deccan Plateau, including a large part of Maharashtra, was dominated by the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty.The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 by Romila Thapar: p.365-366 Several battles over the Deccan Plateau were fought between these empires during the reigns of Raja Raja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I, Jayasimha II, Someshvara I, and Vikramaditya VI.Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen: p.383-384

Seuna (Yadava) dynasty

At its peak, the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty (12th–14th century) ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra River to the Narmada River, including present-day Maharashtra, North Karnataka, and parts of Madhya Pradesh. Its capital was at Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas. The quoted pages can be read at Google Book Search.

The earliest historically attested ruler of the Seuna dynasty was Dridhaprahara, the son of Subahu, from 860 to 880 CE. It is unclear where his capital was located; some argue that it was Shrinagara, while an early inscription suggests it was Chandradityapura (modern Chandwad in the Nasik district). The name Seuna comes from Dridhaprahara's son, Seunachandra, who originally ruled a region called Seunadesha (present-day Khandesh). Bhillama II, a later ruler in the dynasty, assisted Tailapa II in his war with the Paramara king Vakpati Munja. Seunachandra II helped Vikramaditya VI gain his throne.

Around the middle of the 12th century, as Chalukya power waned, the Yadavas declared independence. Their rule reached its peak under Singhana II. Sanskrit was used as a court language by earlier Yadava rulers, but starting with the ruler Simhana, Marathi became the official court language."Yadav – Pahila Marathi Bana" S.P. Dixit (1962) The Yadava capital Devagiri became a magnet for learned scholars in Marathi to showcase their skills and find patronage. The origin and growth of Marathi literature is directly linked with the rise of the Yadava dynasty.

According to scholars such as George M. Moraes, V. K. Rajwade, C. V. Vaidya, A.S. Altekar, D. R. Bhandarkar, and J. Duncan M. Derrett, the Seuna rulers were of Maratha descent.

Medieval and early modern period (1206–18th century CE)

In the early 14th century, the Yadava dynasty, which ruled most of present-day Maharashtra, was overthrown by the Delhi Sultanate ruler Ala-ud-din Khalji. Later, Muhammad bin Tughluq conquered parts of the Deccan Plateau, and temporarily shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Maharashtra.

Bahmani and Deccan Sultanates

After the collapse of the Tughluqs in 1347, the breakaway Bahmani Sultanate governed the region as well as the wider Deccan region for the next 150 years from Gulbarga and later from Bidar. The early period of Islamic rule saw atrocities such as imposition of Jizya tax on non-Muslims, temple destruction, and forcible conversions. Eventually these incidents largely ceased. For most of this period, Brahmins were in charge of accounts whereas revenue collection was in the hands of Marathas who had (hereditary rights) of patilki (revenue collection at village level) and deshmukhi (revenue collection over a larger area). A number of families such as Shinde, Bhosale, Shirke, Ghorpade, Jadhav, More, Mahadik, Ghatge, and Nimbalkar loyally served different sultans at different periods in time. Since most of the population was Hindu and spoke Marathi, even sultans such as Ibrahim Adil Shah I adopted Marathi as the court language, for administration and record keeping.

After the break-up of the Bahamani sultanate in 1518, the Maharashtra region was split between five Deccan sultanates: Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, Adilshah of Bijapur, Qutubshah of Golkonda, Bidarshah of Bidar, and Imadshah of Elichpur. These kingdoms often fought with each other. United, they decisively defeated the Vijayanagara Empire of the south in 1565. The present area of Mumbai was ruled by the Sultanate of Gujarat before its capture by Portugal in 1535. The Faruqi dynasty ruled the Khandesh region between 1382 and 1601 before finally being annexed by the Mughal Empire.

Mughals