The East Kainji languages are spoken in a compact area of the Jos Plateau in Nigeria, near Jos. There are more than 20 of them, most of which are poorly studied.
History East Kainji languages are less internally diverse than some of the other Plateau branches in the Nigerian Middle Belt (Blench 2007). Historically, the East Kainji branch had been influenced by Chadic languages that no longer exist in the region.Blench, Roger. 2007. Language families of the Nigerian Middle Belt and the historical implications of their distribution. Presented to the Jos Linguistic Circle in Jos, Nigeria, July 25, 2007. Today, there are at most 100,000 speakers of East Kainji languages, with almost all languages of the languages being threatened by larger languages such as Hausa and English. Although they are morphologically simple, they have 4-level tones instead of the 3-level tones typical of the region.
At the time of the British conquest, several of these languages were in the process of shifting from duodecimal to decimal systems. Languages attested with such systems include Janji, Gure-Kahugu (Gbiri-Niragu) and Piti.Shuji Matsushita, "Decimal vs. Duodecimal: An interaction between two systems of numeration"
Features Compared to the neighbouring Plateau languages, East Kainji languages are morphologically simple. They have four level tones, as opposed to most other languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt having only three level tones. The fourth tone in East Kainji languages originated as a superhigh tone used to mark plurals.
Syllables in East Kainji languages are generally open (CV). Blench (2020) suggests that the East Kainji branch is most closely related to Basa, since both have (C)V-CVCV phonotactic structures.
Classification East Kainji was once thought to be a primary branch of the Kainji languages, but this is no longer the case. Impressionistically, Piti and Atsam appear to be distinct, but the rest form a continuous dialect chain.Blench 2004, The status of the East Kainji languages of Central Nigeria, p. 8
The East Kainji languages have historically undergone influence from non-Hausa West Chadic languages. East Kainji is not as internally diverse as West Kainji.
Ethnologue Ethnologue indicates several branches; these will be retained here for reference:
Piti–Atsam Jos languages: Amo (Map) Northern Jos languages: Jera languages: Lere, Ziriya (Sheni?) Lameic languages: Gyem, Shau Ningic languages: Gamo-Ningi, Kudu-Camo North-Central Jos languages: Iguta (Guta), Janji, Tunzuii (Tunzu) Boze-Loro languages: Jere, Panawa Chokobo-Lemoro-Sanga languages: Izora (Zora) Lemoro-Sanga languages: Lemoro, Sanga Kauru languages: Kurama, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Bina, Dungu, Kaivi, Kinuku, Kono, Mala, Ruma, Shuwa-Zamani, Surubu, Tumi, Vono
Blench (2018) Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:83):Blench, Roger M. 2018. Nominal affixing in the Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria. In John R. Watters (ed.), East Benue-Congo: Nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 59–106. Berlin: Language Science Press.
Amic languages: Map Tsamic languages: Tsam (Cahwai), Ngmgbang, Bishi (Piti) Kaduna languages: Gbiri-Niragu, Shuwa-Zamani, Vori (Shuwa-Zamani), Kurmi (Kurama), Mala-Ruma, Bin, Kono, Kaivi, Vono, Tumi, Dungu, Nu (Kinuku) North-central cluster: Lemoro, Janji, Iguta (Guta), Zora (Cokobo) (moribund) Shammɔ cluster:Blench, Roger. 2021. Introduction to the Shammɔ peoples of Central Nigeria. Sanga, Gusu, Moro, Loro, Bunu, Tunzu (Duguza) (branch): Zele (Jere), Boze, Panawa Northern Jos group: Sheni cluster: Ziriya (extinct), Kere (extinct), Sheni (almost extinct) Lere cluster: Si (extinct), Gana (extinct), Takaya (extinct) Lame cluster: Gyem, Shau (extinct) Ningi cluster: Kudu-Camo (almost extinct), Gamo-Ningi (Butu-Ningi) (extinct)
Blench (2012) In Blench's 2012 classification, Piti–Atsam is named "Southern". Northern Jos is named "Jos", and the Jera languages are named "Northern Jos", which he further subdivides into several dialect clusters; Amo is placed in this group.Blench 2004, The status of the East Kainji languages of Central Nigeria, p. 10
In the tree below given by Blench (2012), East Kainji is split into a core Jos group and peripheral Southern group.
Southern group: Piti, Atsam Jos group (Jera): Lere cluster: Si (almost extinct), Gana (almost extinct), Takaya (almost extinct) North-central cluster:, Izora (Cokobo), Lemoro, Sanga, Janji, εBoze (Buji), iGusu, iZele (Jere), iBunu (Ribina), iPanawa-iLoro, Iguta, Tunzu (Duguza), tiMap Sheni cluster: Ziriya (extinct), Kere (extinct), Sheni (almost extinct) Kauru group: Gbiri-Niragu, Shuwa-Zamani, Surubu, Kurama, Mala-Ruma, Bina, Kono, Kaivi, Vono, Tumi, Kinuku, Dungu Northern group (Ningi-Lame): Ningi cluster: Kudu-Camo (almost extinct), Gamo-Ningi (Butu-Ningi) (†) Lame cluster: Gyem (almost extinct), Shau (almost extinct)
Shimizu (1982) Classification of the Northern Jos group according to Shimizu (1982: 165):Shimizu, Kiyoshi, 1982. Die North-Jos Gruppe der Plateau=Spreachen Nigerias. Afrika und Übersee, vol. 65.2 (1982), 161-210.
Northern Jos R-group Rahama: Ziriya, Sheni South: Janji, Jere, Guta L-group Central Zora (Chokobo) Moro, Sanga North Lere Takaya (Taura) Si (Rishuwa), Gana Lame-Ningi Lame: Gyem, Shau Ningi Kudu (Kuda), Chamo Gamo (Butu), Ningi
Shimizu (1982) also reconstructs Proto-Northern Jos.
Glottolog Glottolog's classification is similar to Blench's, but the Piti–Atsam name is retained. In this classification, all languages except for Piti–Atsam are grouped under "Jos". Amo, while within the "Jos" group, is left out of both Kauru and Jera (or "Northern Jos", following Blench).
Only Kurama, Gbiri-Niragu, Jere, Sanga and Lemoro have more than a few thousand speakers.
Names and locations Below is a comprehensive list of East Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).
Language Branch Cluster Dialects Alternate spellings Own name for language Endonym(s) Other names (location-based) Other names for language Exonym(s) Speakers Location(s) Notes Map Amic Amon, Among Timap Kumap pl. Amap Ba 3,550 (NAT 1950) Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Atsam A sg. Tsam, pl. Atsam Chawai, Chawe, Chawi 10,200 (1931 Gunn); 30,000 (1972 Barrett) Kaduna State, Kachia LGA Bishi A Riban (Ngmgbang) was formerly listed as a dialect, but is clearly a distinct language Abisi, Bisi xx pl. Abishi Pitti 1,600 (NAT 1950); Live in at least 26 villages (Ajaegbu et al. 2013) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Ngmgbang A Formerly listed as a dialect of Bishi, but is clearly a distinct language Ribam Rigmgbang few villages (Ajaegbu et al. 2013) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Lere cluster (extinct) "Northern Jos" Lere (extinct) 765 (NAT 1949); 1,000 (1973 SIL); languages extinct Bauchi State, Toro LGA Si "Northern Jos" Lere (extinct) Rishuwa Kauru Kuzamani Gana (extinct) "Northern Jos" Lere (extinct) Extinct Takaya (extinct) "Northern Jos" Lere (extinct) Taura Extinct Gamo–Ningi cluster Gamo-Ningi Gamo–Ningi 15,000 but most speak Hausa. Bauchi State, Ningi LGA Gamo Gamo-Ningi Gamo–Ningi tì-Gamo dòò-Gamo pl. à-ndi-Gamo Butancii Buta, Butawa, Butu There are some 32 settlements of Gamo, but of these only Kurmi still spoke the language in 1974 (Shimizu 1982). Ningi Gamo-Ningi Gamo–Ningi Iguta C Anaguta Naraguta 2,580 (HDG); 3,000 (1973 SIL) Plateau State, Bassa LGA Janji C Jenji Tìjánjí Ajanji Anafejanzi 360 (NAT 1950) Plateau State, Bassa LGA Jere cluster C Jere Jera, Jeere 23,000 (1972 SIL) Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA Boze C Jere Boze is divided into 3 dialects, εGorong, εKɔkɔŋ as well as a third rather divergent speech form, εFiru Anabeze eBoze unaBoze pl. anaBoze Buji εGorong (2500?), εKɔkɔŋ (3000) εFiru (1500?) (Blench est, 2003). Due to language loss, especially in road settlements, there are considerably more ethnic Boze. Ethnologue figures are total district populations, not speakers. Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Both sides of the Jos-Zaria road, directly north of Jos. Gusu C Jere Gussum i–Sanga sg. o–Sanga, pl. a–Sanga Anibau, Anosangobari 2,350 (1936 HDG) Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA Jere C Jere Ezelle Anazele, Azelle Jengre 4,500 (1936 HDG) Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Ibunu-Lɔrɔ C Jere Bunu Ìbunu; iLɔrɔ Ànarubùnu, (Anorubuna, Narabuna); ɔnɔLɔrɔ pl. AnoLɔrɔ Rebina, Ribina, Rubunu 2,000 (LA 1971); 1500 (Blench 2003) in four villages Bauchi State, Toro LGA Panawa C Jere iPanawa unuPanawa pl. anaPanawa Bujiyel 1600 CAPRO (1995a). 3500 (Blench 2003) in five villages Bauchi State, Toro LGA Tunzu C one person Tunzú, people àTunzû ìTunzû Dugusa, Duguza 2500 speakers (Blench 2003 est.), though there are likely 2000 more ethnic Tunzu who do not speak the language. Plateau State, Jos East Local Government (5 villages), main settlement at N10˚ 02, E 9˚ 06. Bauchi State, Toro LGA (2 villages) Sheni-Ziriya-Kere cluster C Sheni-Ziriya-Kere Sheni C Sheni-Ziriya-Kere Shani, Shaini tiSeni one person onoSeni, people anaSeni 6 fluent speakers remaining out of ethnic community of about 1500 (Blench 2003) Kaduna State, Lere LGA. Two settlements, Sheni (N10˚ 22.6, E 8˚ 45.9) and Gurjiya (N10˚ 21.5, E 8˚ 45.2) Kere (extinct) C Sheni-Ziriya-Kere extinct (Blench 2003) Kaduna State, Lere LGA. Kere Ziriya (extinct) C Sheni-Ziriya-Kere Jiriya extinct (ethnic community ca. 2000) Bauchi State: Toro LGA: Ziriya (N10˚ 22.6, E 8˚ 50) Nu Kauru Tinu Binu pl. Anu Kinugu, Kinuka, Kinuku 460 (NAT 1949); 500 (1973 SIL); 3000 (est. 2016). About seven villages Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Tumi Kauru Tutumi Kitimi 635 (NAT 1949) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Bin Kauru Bina tìBin bìBin pl. áBin Bogana Binawa 220 (NAT 1949), 2,000 (1973 SIL). 4 villages (2016) ca. 3-4000 (est.) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. About 15 km west of Mariri, along the Geshere road. Gbiri–Niragu cluster Kauru Gbiri–Niragu 5,000 (1952 W&B) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Gbiri Kauru Gbiri–Niragu Igbiri, Agari, Agbiri Gura, Gure, Guri Niragu Kauru Gbiri–Niragu Anirago, Aniragu Kafugu, Kagu, Kahugu, Kapugu Kurama Kauru Tikurumi Akurumi Bagwama (also refers to Ruma) 11,300 (NAT 1949) Kaduna State, Saminaka and Ikara LGAs; Kano State, Tudun Wada LGA Ruma Kauru Rurama Turuma Arumaruma Bagwama (also refers to Kurama) 2,200 (NAT 1948) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Shuwa–Zamani Kauru Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Vori Kauru TiVori PiVori pl. AVori Srubu, Skrubu, Surubu, Zurubu Fiti 1,950 (NAT 1948) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA Dungu Kauru Dungi, Dingi, Dwingi, Dunjawa 310 (NAT 1949) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Kono Kauru Konu, Kwono 1,550 (NAT 1949) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Mala Kauru Tumala Amala Rumaya, Rumaiya 1,800 (NAT 1948) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Vono Kauru Kivɔnɔ Avɔnɔ Kibolo, Kiwollo, Kiballo 335 (NAT 1949); 500 (1973 SIL) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Kaivi Kauru Kaibi 650 (NAT 1949) Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA no data Gyem Lame Gema 2000 (est. 2015) Bauchi State, Toro LGA, Lame district Shau Lame Sho Lìsháù Almost extinct Bauchi State, Toro LGA, villages of Shau and Mana Kudu–Camo cluster Ningi Kudu–Camo Basa said to be a sub–group Language moribund, perhaps extinct Bauchi State, Ningi LGA Kudu Ningi Kudu–Camo Kuda Probably extinct Camo Ningi Kudu–Camo Chamo Probably extinct Lemoro North-Central Limorro Emoro Anemoro Anowuru 2,950 (1936 HDG) Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA Sanga North-Central Aŋma Asanga Asanga 1,700 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1973 SIL) Bauchi State, Toro LGA, Lame district Zora North-Central iZora uZora pl. aZora Cikobu, Chokobo 425 (1936 HDG), 19 speakers (March 2016); 10 settlements close to N10˚ 21.7, E 8˚ 50.6. About 3-4000 ethnic Zora. Plateau State, Bassa LGA
Lexical comparison