Di Xin of Shang () or Shou, King of Shang (), was the last king of the Shang dynasty of ancient China. He is also known by a pejorative title, King Zhou of Shang (; ) in Zhou dynasty texts and beyond.Wu, 220. He is contemporaneously recorded in bronze relics, where his temple name, Di Xin, is used, and posthumously in the Chinese classics by his pejorative title of "King Zhou."
In later times, the story of “King Zhou” became a cautionary tale on what could befall a kingdom if its ruler gave into corruption and moral depravity. However, owing to the small number of artifacts found from his rule, his actual life and deeds are not well understood beyond posthumous accounts.
Names "Di Xin" () is the official title given by the Shang dynasty imperial house, formatted in a similar way to Emperor Shun and Emperor Yao with the thearch title di placed before his name. This stands in contrast to later emperors, who would have it placed after.
Di Xin was born with the family name Zi, lineage name Yin, and the given name Shou. He was called Shou, King of Shang by the Zhou when he was alive.
After Di Xin had allegedly killed himself at Deer Terrace Pavilion he was given a derogatory posthumous name, King Zhou of Shang (), with Zhou () meaning "horse crupper", implying "injustice and harm". It is also the part of a saddle or harness that is most likely to be soiled by the horse, and an area most likely to be whipped. However, Sima Qian claims that everyone in the empire had dubbed Di Xin this due to a tyrannical reign.Shiji "Annals of Yin"
This title Zhòu and the enemy Zhōu Dynasty are only pronounced similarly today in Modern Standard Mandarin Chinese. Proceeding from the Baxter–Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese, which would have been spoken at the time, to Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese, to the modern-day pronunciation in Pinyin would be as follows: : // : //
Di Xin is occasionally called , merging his Shang and Zhou names.
Centuries after his death, the name "King Zhou of Shang" had become shorthand for an archetype of wicked rule.
Early life Di Xin was the younger of three sons to Di Yi, his brothers named Zi Qi () and Zi Yan ().Lüshi Chunqiu As Qi’s mother was of low birth, whereas Di Xin’s was the principal consort, he was made the heir and ascended the throne after Di Yi passed away. Di Xin had two uncles, Ji Zi and Bi Gan. He bore a single son named Wu Geng.
Outside of family, little is known of Di Xin’s early life outside of posthumous accounts. In Chapter 15 of Xunzi, Di Xin is recorded as having been tall, mighty, and intelligent, even from a young age, able to defeat a hundred men on his own. Sima Qian notes that Di Xin was cunning and able to talk his way out of trouble, and would boast of his abilities being above all others, even his own ministers. He was also said to be able to fight beasts with his bare hands.Wu, 220–221, referencing Sima Qian's Yin Benji chapter (). Di Xin's strength is recorded in 3939, where he is recorded as having hunted a white Sumatran rhinoceros or Short-horned water buffalo during the 10th year of his reign.
Reign After succeeding the throne, Di Xin changed the Shang capital to Mo , then changed the name to Zhaoge , in modern-day Qi County, Hebi in Henan. Di Xin is known for his wars with the Renfang, Linfang , and Hufang . The Hufang were particularly regarded as being "rebellious" in bronze inscriptions. Jicheng 02752: These wars are recorded as having been particularly costly to the Shang dynasty in posthumous accounts and were seen as the main reason for its downfall.
To the horror of the Zhou people, Di Xin was known to employ fugitives in his governmental offices based on merit. This method was found to suppress the clans who held too much power in court.1997(1):6.2015, 35(5):5. Additionally, he was known to appoint women to positions as well, a trend that would evaporate after his reign. Women were responsible for managing rituals, advising military affairs, managing court and guests, and they were highly respected by the Shang state, which was observed even during the Zhou-Qin classical period. The appointment of women to power during the Shang dynasty indicates a culture with high levels of gender equality, while the Zhou state, which was developing Confucian rituals at the time, was more patriarchal.2007(2):150–154. 2007(1):21. 2000(3):5.
Participation in feng
In contemporary records, as is the role of the Shang king, Di Xin is recorded as having upheld Shang dynasty religion in several bronze and oracle bone inscriptions, where he participates in feng , the Shang dynasty concept of ritual communion with ancestors. This implies a trend of reduction in human sacrifice compared to previous rulers; likewise, after Di Xin's reign ended, ritual sacrifice increased in the Zhou dynasty.
The diviners that worked with Di Xin are small in number, comprising the Huang () group of Period V in oracle bone divination. Of these, Yong () and Huang () were the most prolific, the former being a veteran of Di Yi's reign and the latter a new arrival who specifically divinated about campaigns against the Renfang ().
In the fourth year of his reign, he performed an yi sacrifice on an Yisi day dedicated to his father Di Yi, signalling the start of another ritual cycle. This was actualised with a zhu sacrifice being made later, to which an individual named Bi Qi was rewarded with cowry money.Pictured, c.1000 B.C.; This activity would continue at least into his 22nd year, having performed a rong ritual for his father, signalling the end of a cycle. He rewarded the minister assisting him with cowry money 貝, which was spent on a bronze vessel.NA 1566
During his 15th year on a Disi day of Rong sacrifice, Di Xin is recorded as having inspected Kuai during his war with the Renfang. He rewarded an individual named Xiaochen Yu with cowry money, who would then make imaged after a Sumatran rhinoceros.
Concubines Di Xin had several concubines, of whom two are named, though contemporary sources are scarce. His favourite was allegedly Daji, who is described as a temptress who manipulated him into committing torturous acts, of which the two garnered pleasure. His second concubine was a daughter of Lord Jiu , of whom lacks a definitive name. She was presented to Di Xin by a ruler from the Guifang, who had become allies with the Shang after a three-year war. However, she was allegedly killed due to her disliking lust (""), and her father was killed after. However, conflicting accounts claim that Daji called her ugly and feared Di Xin would no longer pay attention to her, convincing him to kill her. Her tomb is located in Qixian County, Hebi in Henan.
Renfang campaign Di Xin's reign is marked by a significant military campaign in the east against Dongyi states, referred to by the Shang as the Renfang (). In a large-scale study of oracle bones, Ma Panpan concludes that a ruler, either Di Yi or Di Xin, but likely Di Xin, prognosticated as to whether to join the war during a sacrifice to Shang Jia, believed it to be auspicious, and chose to proceed.《合集》36482 The campaign went on for a considerable period of time and posthumous Zhou dynasty accounts record it as being particularly costly to the Late Shang state. Huang, one of Di Xin's diviners, charged as to whether Di Xin would see misfortune during sequential 10-day periods.《合集》36823《合集》39496 癸亥。卜。黃貞：王旬亡憂。在九月。征人方，在雇彝。《合集》36487 On the guihai day, scapulimancy was performed. Huang charges: "During the [coming] ten-day period, will the king have no misfortune?" It was in the ninth month, during the campaign against Renfang, at Guyi. Yong would make similar prognostications, sometimes daily, during the campaign, as Di Xin moved to various places. Later, Shang forces moved to Qian () and a divination was performed. 10 days later, on a guimao day, the king had moved into the Yong frontier () in the State of You, controlled by Marquess Xi of You (), It appears that Di Xin spent considerable time in the State of You in particular.
Battle of Muye and death
In , the army of Ji Fa of Zhou, invaded with 45,000 troops led by Jiang Ziya, compared to the Shang's 170,000. Despite this, due to having been occupied with fighting the Renfang, they had caught the Shang unaware whilst troop morale was low. This led to a surprise defeat. The battle is recorded on the Li gui, the only contemporary epigraphic evidence of its occurrence.
The Lost Book of Zhou records the battle as having been particularly brutal, with the Shang people being slaughtered.Yegor Grebnev, (2018). "The Record of King Wu of Zhou's Royal Deeds in the Yi Zhou Shu in Light of Near Eastern Royal Inscriptions," Journal of the American Oriental Society 138.1, p. 73-104. Records of the Grand Historian records Ji Fa, King Wu of Zhou making a decisive charge whilst flanked by Ji Dan, Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao, which led to their victory.
When his loss at the Battle of Muye was clear, Di Xin is alleged to have gathered up his treasures, dressed in his finest wear, ran to Deer Terrace Pavilion, and committed self-immolation. Thereafter, he was beheaded and had his head hung on a white-flag pole by Ji Fa. Ji Fa then killed consort Daji, freed Jizi, paid respects to Bi Gan, and honoured the neighbourhood of Shang Rong with a plaque.Shiji "Annals of Zhou"Liu Xiang, Biographies of Exemplary Women "Depraved Favorites – Da Ji (consort) of Zhou of Yin" However, the Yi Zhou Shu notes that Di Xin was murdered with an axe by Ji Fa amid the massacre of Shang civilians.Yi Zhou Shu "Shifu"
Proposed tomb Di Xin's tomb is thought to be No. 1567 in Yinxu, but his body was not found inside, and the tomb itself was empty. Additionally, it lacks the structures seen with other Shang royal tombs despite being in the same royal Campbell, Roderick B. 2014. Archaeology of the Chinese Bronze Age: From Erlitou to Anyang. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. 978-1-931745-98-7. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9df4w6kn. Whether he was buried there or it was desecrated by the Zhou is unclear. Because Shang royal tombs were repeatedly and persistently looted in antiquity, it is near-impossible to test the hypothesis beyond process of elimination. Uchida and Mizoguchi argue that Di Xin never had a tomb, and that it is more likely to have belonged to Di Yi.Koji Mizoguchi and Junko Uchida, “The Anyang Xibeigang Shang royal tombs revisited: a social archaeological approach,” Antiquity 92.363 (2018): 709–723. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2018.19
Aftermath After the annexation of Shang, his son, Wu Geng, would rule Yin, which had been partitioned into the State of Bei. However, King Wu of Zhou would die 3 years into his reign, leaving his son, King Cheng of Zhou, to rule as a child. Ji Dan, the Duke of Zhou, would rule as regent for a time, which led to a succession crisis, with the Shang people believing Wu Geng should rule instead. This culminated in the Rebellion of the Three Guards, where several of King Wu's brothers rebelled alongside him. The Duke of Zhou decisively crushed the rebellion within 3 years, and installed Ji Feng (, Kang Shu ) to manage their forces, and wrote treatises on how to handle the conquered people. The Shang would not rise again after this, and Di Xin’s brothers Zi Qi and Zi Yan would successively rule the vassal state Song in the burgeoning Zhou dynasty.
Criticism in posthumous accounts