Yemaek () is the name for an ancient group of ethnic Koreans who resided in Manchuria. Alongside the Samhan people, they are believed to be the major contributors of modern day Koreans' genetics as well as culture, food, traditions, and language.
Overview It is believed that the Yemaek people were either a homogenous group or a heterogenous one that assimilated to become a single group. The latter hypothesis posits that the name Yemaek is in fact an amalgamation of two separate, but related groups, known as the "Ye" and the "Maek" tribes which later formed into one polity, becoming the newly "Ye-Maek" people. However, other detractors criticize this logic by alluding to sources that posit that they were a single group from the very beginning. Others postulate that the Yemaek people were a branch group of the bigger Maek tribe.
Despite the controversy surrounding whether they were homogenous, heterogenous or a branch of Maek, the current consensus is that Yemaek people were indeed a blend of the Ye and Maek tribes, but were ethnolinguistically identical, and only remained as socially and politically disparate identities.The first Yemaek state proper to appear in history was Old Chosŏn (2333[?]–108 BCE), originally called simply as "Chosŏn", but was renamed in order to prevent confusion with its ostensible successor dynasty, "Chosŏn (Joseon)" (1392–1897 CE) of the same characters. The lesser known Yemaek state was the kingdom of Buyeo (2nd century BCE–494 CE), a state that co-existed with Old Chosŏn throughout its time. Other kingdoms such as Eastern Ye and Okjeo are also believed to have been part of the Yemaek-sphere.
Though not sharing any borders, it also co-existed much of its history with the Samhan polities as well as their predecessor, the Jin state. It is unclear to what extent the Yemaek had influence over the southern parts of the peninsula, but by the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period of Korea, Yemaek peoples, especially from the kingdoms of Old Chosŏn and Buyeo, were dominant in places such as Goguryeo, Paekche, Silla, and Kaya.
It is also recorded that the Samhan confederacies (Mahan/Byeonhan/Jinhan) also included Yemaek inhabitants, further adding credence to the possibility of the Yemaek and Samhan people constantly assimilating with one another throughout history.
History The earliest attestations of the word "Yemaek" appear in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (3rd century CE) which states that the kingdom of Goguryeo bordered with Yemaek and Chosŏn (Old Chosŏn) to the south.
However, it is also recorded in the Book of Later Han (5th century CE) that the polities of: Ye, Maek, Wa, and Han disparately provided tribute to Eastern Han dynasty in order to secure their borders to prevent raids from the people of Maek. Although the Records of the Three Kingdoms was published before the Book of Later Han, the latter testifies records of earlier history, which in turn, created a debate on whether the tribes were initially separate or not in recent times.
In contrast, the earliest definitive attestations for Yemaek as a homogenous identity appear later in the Book of Later Han wherein it is recorded that China's eastern borders became quiet after the "Yemaek people were subdued". The current historian circles assert this as evidence for the denomination pointing at Goguryeo, as its name became analogous with its predecessor's name at the end of the chapter. Assuming this premise, the theory posits that Goguryeo was synonymous to the unification of Yemaek by the fifth century CE.
The first Korean historiographical attempt to analyze Yemaek was conducted by Chŏng Yagyong in his 1811 book, Study of the Territories of My Nation (我邦疆域考; 아방강역고) which states that Maek was the name of the people and Ye was the name of the location. Thus, he posited that the complete word, Yemaek was one of the "Nine peoples of Maek (九貊)" which seems to reflect the Sinocentric model of the Nine Barbarians of the East. The "East Barbarians" also known as "Dongyi (東夷)" in Chinese, were a motif that is recurrent in both the Records of the Three Kingdoms and the Book of Later Han. Both books designate the Japanese, the Koreans and the Yilou as "Eastern Barbarians". Due to the Yilou being mutually unintelligible with its southern neighbor, Buyeo, it is generally agreed that the inclusion of Yilou was alluding to the Jurchen people.
The concept of Eastern Barbarians was also idiomatically dubbed the "Nine Barbarians". However, due to the unlikelihood of such populations co-existing to that extent, the number is believed to have been exaggerated. Regardless, the significance of the number nine is believed to have influenced the nine-story pagoda known as the Hwangnyongsa (erected in the capital of Silla) which commemorated the unification of the Korean peninsula whereby each floor designated a people Silla subdued, also known as the "Nine Hans (九韓; 구한; Guhan)". Chŏng Yagyong's analysis demonstrates the Korean people's fascination for the Yemaek being their ancestors was considered as early as the Joseon period.
Identity
Due to the major cultural impact of Old Chosŏn and Buyeo in Korean history, Yemaek people, together with the inhabitants of the Samhan states, acted as the foundation for the formation of the modern Korean national identity, also known as the "Han ()" identity. However, in ancient times, prior to the unification of the peninsula, polities stemming from the respective tribes did not view one another as equals, but rather rivals, especially during the Three Kingdoms period of Korea. Out of the three kingdoms which succeeded in forming a centralized bureaucracy, Goguryeo retained the strongest connection with Yemaek people, claiming to be the direct descendants of the Old Chosŏn people while also having direct connections to Buyeo. This was likely due to the kingdom forming from the lands of Old Chosŏn, and its founder hailing from the kingdom of Buyeo, allowing Goguryeo to possess the most agency to claim the "Yemaek identity" out of all the Korean kingdoms at the time. Other kingdoms such as Silla and Paekche (and sometimes Kaya) all possessed major influences from the Yemaek people as well, but were also related to the Samhan-sphere, becoming somewhat of a bridge between the cultures. Therefore, in recent times, the study of Yemaek and its sole identity is mostly centralized around Goguryeo.
Several controversies surrounding Goguryeo revolve around the inherent issues found in the historicity and the etymology behind the Yemaek people due to the sparsity of sources. However, it is believed that the inhabitants of Goguryeo were an accumulation of many peoples such as "Daesu-Maek (大水貊)", "Sosu-Maek (小水貊)", and purportedly "Yang-Maek (梁貊)". Furthermore, people who resided in the river basin of the Amnok River (Yalu River) began to be referred to as "Maek" somewhere near Anno Domini, and is hypothesized that they amalgamated with the Ye people whom migrated from Buyeo. They subsequently accelerated their expansion by further conquering nearby tribes, thus forming a unified Yemaek identity under one sovereign.
Ye The Ye were attested in the Records of the Three Kingdoms to border Goguryeo to the north on the coast of the Great Sea. However, they were retroactively denominated as "Eastern Ye" by modern historians in order to discern them from the hypothetical Ye who made up Yemaek, though the two are virtually indiscernible in contemporary records. It is attested in the Records of the Three Kingdoms that the Ye had no king and its elders had claimed for generations they were the same people as Goguryeo. Of the city-states of Ye, Bulne-Ye-guk (不耐穢國; 불내예국) was the most powerful and longest lasting. Moreover, a grave was excavated in the Nangnang area in 1958 wherein a silver seal carved as "Bujŏ-Ye-gun (夫組穢君; 부저예군)" was discovered. The evidence alludes to the Ye also being able to be transcribed in Hanja as "穢".
Maek The origin for Goguryeo is provided in the Records of the Three Kingdoms wherein it was founded in the river basin of "Daesu (大水; 대수)" or "big water" mostly likely the Amnok (Yalu) River. Another state is said to have been founded by a split branch of Goguryeo in the river basin of "Sosu (小水; 소수)" or "small water" most likely the Doɳga (Hun) River, hence, they were called "Sosu-Maek (小水貊; 소수맥)". The two records were the earliest attested identification of Goguryeo as Maek. Moreover, another state called "Yang-Maek (梁貊; 양맥)" is attested in the Samguk sagi that it was subdued by Yuri of Goguryeo in the 33rd year of his reign whilst on their way to attack the Xuantu Commandery. Since the contemporary capital of the colony lied in the coast of the Doɳga (Hun) River, it has been hypothesized that Yang-Maek referred to the Maek who lived in the river basin of "Yangsu (梁水; 양수)" most likely the Taizi River situated between the Amnok (Yalu) and Doɳga (Hun) rivers. However, it has also been hypothesized that Yangsu simply refers to Sosu and thus were the same people.여호규, 2014, "고구려 초기 정치사 연구", 신서원, p.74. Considering that Cao Wei was defeated near Yang-Maek by King Dongchŏn and again by King Jungchŏn, the two states most likely served as existential roles for the Maek's sovereignty.
Language
It is attested in the Records of the Three Kingdoms that the knowledge had been passed down for generations within the Eastern Barbarians that Goguryeo was a split branch of Buyeo and their traditions and languages were alike. It is further attested in the Records of the Three Kingdoms that the language of Okjeo was generally identical to Goguryeo, though there existed differences at times and the language, manners and traditions of Ye were also generally identical to Goguryeo.
It has been hypothesized that the language spoken by the Yemaek was heavily linked to the Koreanic languages. Most likely being a proto-Koreanic family that entered as the Yemaek migrated south, closer to the inland of the peninsula.
It is unclear to what extent the language had its influence on, with scholars such as Alexander Vovin positing that the language spoken by the Yemaek people was more Koreanic while the language spoken by the Samhan was closer to Japonic. He theorized that the incoming Yemaek waves from the north (from Old Chosŏn and Buyeo) first co-existed with the Japonic speakers of the south (Samhan) which was later absorbed with parts of its influence remaining, resulting in the modern Korean language. The idea later evolved into the Peninsular Japonic theory.
Later, after the formation of the Three Kingdoms period of Korea, the language formally became what is known as Old Korean, a possible amalgamation of both proto-Koreanic and proto-Japonic (Peninsular Japonic) languages, however, with Koreanic elements being the backbone. This language was later introduced to Japan during the Kofun period with the introduction of Toraijins who are believed to be the descendants of the assimilated Yemaek/Samhan peoples and the major genetical contributors to both modern day Koreans and Japanese.
According to (宮本 一夫), a renowned linguist and emeritus professor at Kyushu University, "Central Japanese was heavily influenced by Old Korean (possibly through Baekje) during the Kofun and Asuka periods, from the 4th to 7th centuries AD". He linked the Yayoi period with the Mumun period of Korea and stated that the proto-Japonic language was spread during this time. He also remarked that the proto-Japonic of the Yayoi/Mumun period and proto-Koreanic that was introduced during Kofun/Asuka period stemmed from the same ancestral language, stating that "the homeland of both languages is the same based on archeological evidence, and they are kindred language families" and that "Proto-Japonic and Proto-Koreanic split off from the Transeurasian languages in southern Manchuria" positing that the Yayoi (proto-Japonic) and Kofun (proto-Koreanic) migrations were heavily related.