Proto-Hmong–Mien (PHM), also known as Proto-Miao–Yao (PMY; ), is the reconstructed ancestor of the Hmong–Mien languages. Lower-level reconstructions include Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic.
Historical chronology Ratliff (2021) estimates that the split between Hmongic and Mienic had occurred before 2500 BP, since the Old Chinese words tiě 'iron' and xià 'descend' were both borrowed separately by Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic.
In earlier studies, the date of proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas (2004),Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench, and Alicia Sanchez-Nazas (eds.) (2004). The peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. London: RoutledgeCurzon. . as well as by Ratliff (2021:247). It has been estimated to about 4243 BP by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), however, ASJP is not widely accepted among historical linguists as a sufficiently rigorous method to establish or evaluate relationships between language families, since it only makes use of 40 basic vocabulary items.Cf. comments by Adelaar, Blust and Campbell in Holman, Eric W., et al. (2011) "Automated Dating of the World's Language Families Based on Lexical Similarity." Current Anthropology, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 841–875.
Reconstructions Reconstructions of Proto-Hmong–Mien include the following.
Herbert Purnell (1970)Purnell, Herbert C., Jr. 1970. Toward a reconstruction of Proto-Miao-Yao. PhD dissertation, Cornell University. is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien, Proto-Hmongic, and Proto-Mienic. Wang Fushi & Mao Zongwu (1995)Wang Fushi 王辅世, Mao Zongwu 毛宗武. 1995. Miao-Yao yu guyin gouni 苗瑤语古音构拟. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien by Chinese scholars. Chen Qiguang (2001)Chen, Qiguang 陈其光. 2001. Han-Zang, Miao-Yao tongyuanci zhuanti yanjiu 汉藏、苗瑶同源词专题研究 [A comparative study of Chinese and Miao-Yao]", pp.129–651. Vol. 2 in the series: Ting Pang-hsin 丁邦新 & Sun Hongkai 孙宏开 (eds.), Hanzangyu Tongyuanci Yanjiu 汉藏语同源词研究 [A Study of Sino-Tibetan cognate vocabulary]. Nanning: Guangxi Minzu Chubanshe 广西民族出版社. . reconstructs Proto-Hmong-Mien based on 15 datapoints: Hmu (Yanghao 养蒿), Qo Xiong (Layiping 腊乙坪), Hmong (Dananshan 大南山), Xijia (Shibanzhai 石板寨), Pa Hng (Gundong 滚董), Younuo (Huangluo 黄落), Dongnu (Qibailong 七百弄), Nunu (Xishan 西山), She (Xiashuicun 下水村), Jiongnai (Longhua 龙华), Pana (Xinle 新乐), Iu Mien (Dapingjiang 大坪江), Kim Mun (Yanyuan 烟园 in Qiongzhong County 琼中县, Hainan), Biao Min (Shuanglong 双龙), Zao Min (Daping 大坪). A revised reconstruction was later published as Chen (2013).Chen Qiguang [陈其光] (2013). Miao Yao yuwen [苗瑶语文]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House [民族出版社]. Wu Anqi (2002)Wu, Anqi 吴安其. 2002. Hanzangyu tongyuan yanjiu 汉藏语同源研究. Beijing: Minzu University Press 中央民族大学出版社. reconstructs approximately 100 Swadesh list items for Proto-Hmong-Mien. Martha Ratliff (2010) is the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien by a Western scholar since Purnell (1970). Weera Ostapirat (2016) proposes sesquisyllables and velarization in Proto-Hmong-Mien initials, parallel to sesquisyllables and pharyngealization in Old Chinese. Li Yunbing (2018) reconstructs Proto-Hmong-Mien initials and finals, which are listed separately.
In China, the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmongic (Proto-Miao) was undertaken by Wang Fushi (1979).Wang, Fushi. 1979. Miaoyu fangyan sheng yun mu bijiao 苗语方言声韵母比较 [The comparison of the initials and finals of the Miao dialects]. Unpublished manuscript. Beijing. Wang's 1979 manuscript was subsequently revised and published as Wang (1994).Wang, Fushi 王輔世. 1994. Miaoyu guyin gouni 苗语古音構擬 / Reconstruction of Proto-Miao Language. Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA) / Ajia Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyūjo 國立亞非語言文化硏究所.
Proto-Mienic (Proto-Mjuenic; reconstruction excludes Biao Min and Zao Min) has been reconstructed by Luang-Thongkum (1993).L-Thongkum, Theraphan. 1993. A view on Proto-Mjuenic (Yao). Mon-Khmer Studies 22:163-230. A comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Mienic has been published by Liu (2021).
Ratliff (2010) Martha Ratliff (2010) used 11 criterion languages for her reconstruction.
East Hmongic (Qiandong); Northern vernacular: Yanghao 养蒿, Yanghao Township, Taijiang County, Guizhou North Hmongic (Xiangxi); Western vernacular: Jiwei 吉卫, Jiwei Township, Huayuan County, Hunan West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian): White Hmong of Laos and Thailand West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian); Mashan subdialect, Central vernacular: Zongdi 宗地, Zongdi Township, Ziyun County, Guizhou West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian); Luobohe subdialect: Fuyuan 复员, Fuyuan County, Yunnan Hmongic; Jiongnai: Changdong Township 长垌, Jinxiu County, Guangxi Hmongic; Baiyun Pa-Hng: Baiyun 白云, Rongshui County, Guangxi Mienic; Mien, Luoxiang vernacular: Luoxiang Township 罗香, Jinxiu County, Guangxi Mienic; Mun: Lanjin Township 览金, Lingyun County, Guangxi Mienic; Biao Min: Dongshan Yao Township 东山, Quanzhou County, Guangxi Mienic; Zao Min: Daping Township 大平, Liannan County, Guangdong
Wang & Mao (1995) Wang & Mao (1995) base their Proto-Hmong–Mien reconstruction on the following 23 criterion Hmong-Mien languages.
Yanghao 养蒿; Hmu, North (ISO 639-3: []) Jiwei 吉卫; Qo Xiong, West [] Xianjin 先进 ( = Dananshan 大南山); Chuanqiandian Miao, 1st lect [] Shimenkan 石门坎; Diandongbei Miao [] Qingyan 青岩; Guiyang Miao, North [] Gaopo 高坡; Huishui Miao, North [] Zongdi 宗地; Mashan Miao, Central [] Fuyuan 复员; Luobohe Miao, 2nd lect [] Fengxiang 枫香; Chong'anjiang Miao [] Qibainong 七百弄; Bunu, Dongnu [] Yaoli 瑶里; Nao Klao, Baonuo [] Wenjie 文界; Pa-Hng, Sanjiang [] Changdong 长峒; Jiongnai [] Duozhu 多祝; She [] Jiangdi 江底; Iu Mien, Guangdian [] Xiangjiang 湘江; Iu Mien, Xiangnan [] Luoxiang 罗香; Luoxiang Mien Ao Biao [] Changping 长坪; Changping Mien Biao Mon [] Liangzi 梁子; Kim Mun [] Lanjin 览金; Kim Mun [] Dongshan 东山; Biao Mon, Dongshan [] Sanjiang 三江; Biao Mon, Shikou Chao Kong Meng [] Daping 大坪; Dzao Min []
Phonology Ratliff (2010) Martha Ratliff's 2010 reconstruction contains the following phonemic inventory.
51–54 consonants (including pre-glottalized and pre-nasalized consonants) 9 monophthong vowels 7 diphthongs 11 nasal rimes
The full set of Proto-Hmong–Mien initial consonants is (Ratliff 2010: 31): Bilabial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Plain stop aspirated voiceless voiced Pre-nasalized stop aspirated voiceless voiced Nasal voiced pre-glottalized aspirated Glide voiced pre-glottalized aspirated () Fricative voiceless voiced () ()
The 3 medial consonants are *-j-, *-l-, and *-r-. The 6 final stop consonants are *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ.
The Proto-Hmong–Mien vowels are (11 total) (Ratliff 2010: 108): Front Central Back High , Mid-high Central Mid-low Near-low Low
Proto-Hmong–Mien has the following syllable structure (Ratliff 2010:10):
Ratliff (2010) does not reconstruct vowel length for either Proto-Mienic or Proto-Hmong–Mien; in contrast, Li (2018) reconstructs vowel length for both. Even though Mienic languages usually have vowel length, Ratliff ascribes this to areal features that were borrowed after the breakup of Proto-Mienic.Ratliff, Martha. 2007. "Contrastive Vowel Length in Mienic: Inheritance or Diffusion?" In SEALS XIII Papers from the 13th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2003, edited by Iwasaki Shoichi et al. Canberra, Australia, 223-229. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. Neighboring languages with vowel length include Yue Chinese and Zhuang.
Ostapirat (2016) Ostapirat (2016)Ostapirat, Weera. 2016. Issues in the Reconstruction and Affiliation of Proto-Miao-Yao . Language and Linguistics 17(1): 133–145. revises various reconstructed Proto-Hmong–Mien consonant initials proposed by Ratliff (2010). He suggests that many proto-initials are in fact sesquisyllables, in line with Baxter & Sagart's (2014) Old Chinese reconstruction and Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction. Examples include reconstructing *m.l- and *m.r- where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs *mbl- and *mbr-, respectively. Hmong-Mien presyllables are further discussed in Strecker (2021). (Pre-print version)
Ostapirat (2016) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs -j- or -w-. Similarly, Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants for Proto-Kra–Dai.Norquest, Peter. 2020. A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra-Dai. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia.
Additionally, Ostapirat revises Ratliff's uvulars (*q-, etc.) as velars (*k-, etc.), and her palatals as either alveolars or palatals.
Below are some reconstructions from Ostapirat (2016) compared with those of Ratliff (2010).
Gloss Proto-Hmong-Mien(Ostapirat 2016) Proto-Hmong-Mien(Ratliff 2010) Proto-Mienic(Ratliff 2010) Notes fruit *pˠeuB *pji̯əuX float *mbˠeuA *mbi̯əuA < OC 浮 bedbug *pˠiA *pji three *pˠuA *pjɔu burn *pˠuB *pɔuB name *mpˠuC *mpɔuH hand *bˠuB *-bɔuX to know *peiA *pei to dream *mpeiC *mpeiH to sleep *pˠeiC *pu̯eiH to boil *mpˠeiC *mpuæiH to rake *baA *baA < OC 耙 thin *bˠeD *bi̯ɛkD < OC 薄 father *pˠeB *pjaX < OC 父 to mend *mpˠeB *mpjaX < OC 補 chaff *mphˠeD *mpʰi̯ɛk dog *kluB *qluwX < OC 狗 cucumber *klˠaA *Kʷa < OC 瓜 to cross over *klˠaiC *KʷajH < OC 過 wide *klˠaŋB *Kʷi̯aŋX < OC 廣 far *klˠuA *qʷuw < OC 迂 bear *klˠepD *qrep
Taguchi (2023) Taguchi (2023) discusses several revisions in the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Hmong–Mien and suggests a classification based on lexical evidence rather than phonological sound changes.Taguchi, Yoshihisa. 2023. Toward a new reconstruction of Proto-Hmong-Mien. 26th Himalayan Languages Symposium, 4–6 September 2023. Paris: INALCO. Rimes are simplified, while nasal codas in open rimes in Proto-Hmongic are posited to have derived from historical nasal initial consonants.Taguchi, Yoshihisa. (2022) Nasal transfer in Hmongic. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 45/1:72-92. Taguchi (2023) also suggests that Ratliff's (2010) Proto-Hmongic *k- and *q- are in fact secondary developments from Proto-Hmong–Mien *kr- and *k-, respectively.
Vocabulary Below are some words roughly belonging to the semantic domains of agriculture and subsistence from Ratliff (2004), with the Proto-Hmong-Mien and Proto-Hmongic reconstructions from Ratliff (2010), and Old Chinese reconstructions from Baxter & Sagart (2014)Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent. 2014. The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese. College of LSA, University of Michigan. Accessed 19 February 2023. for comparison (note that the Old Chinese forms are not necessarily cognate with the Hmong–Mien forms). Terms for domesticated animals and non-rice crops are usually shared with Chinese, while vocabulary relating to hunting, rice crops, and local plants and animals are usually not shared with Chinese.
Proto-Hmong–Mien Proto-Hmongic Old Chinese English *ntsʰʉC *s-daŋʔ (象) elephant *ʔlinA *ɢʷan (猿) monkey *ŋgu̯eiB *krun (麇) river deer *tsjɔB *qʰˁraʔ (虎) tiger *ɢləŋB *tsʰˁoŋ (蔥) Chinese onion *NKan *C.mˁru (茅) cogon grass *ʰnænB *C.nˁaʔ (弩) crossbow *pənX *Cə.lak-s (射) to shoot *ndroC *lriwk (逐) to track, follow *Kəi *kˁe (雞) chicken *m-nɔk *tˁiw (雕) bird *qluwX *hmaŋC *Cə.kˁroʔ (狗) dog *ʔap *qraːb (鴨) duck *mpæC *pˁra (豝) pig *juŋ *ɢaŋ (羊) sheep/goat *ŋiuŋ *s.ɢijʔ (兕) water buffalo *dup *N.tˁo-s (豆) bean *N-peiX *s-t(ʰ)uk (菽) soybean *wouH *ɢʷa-s (芋) taro *mbləu *lˁuʔ (稻) rice plant;growing/unhusked rice *ntsuwC *(C.)mˤejʔ (米) husked rice *hnrəaŋH *bonʔ-s (飯) cooked rice