Charles, Earl Cornwallis (1738–1805) was a military officer who served in the British Army during the American War of Independence. He is best known for surrendering his army after the 1781 siege of Yorktown, an act that ended major hostilities in North America and led directly to peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war.
Born into an aristocratic family with a history of public service, Cornwallis was politically opposed to the war, but agreed to serve when it became clear that Britain would require a significant military presence in the Thirteen Colonies. First arriving in May 1776, he participated in the Battle of Sullivan's Island, before William Howe. He played a notable role in the partially successful New York and New Jersey campaign when George Washington successfully eluded him after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and inflicted a decisive defeat on troops left at his rear in the Battle of Princeton.
Cornwallis was also involved in the Philadelphia campaign (1777–1778), leading a wing of Howe's army, before he became one of the leading figures of the British "southern strategy" to gain control of the southern colonies. In that role he successfully led troops that gained a measure of control and influence in South Carolina before heading into North Carolina. There, despite successes like his victory at the Battle of Camden, which burnished his reputation, wings of his army were decisively defeated at Kings Mountain and Cowpens. After a Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Court House, North Carolina, Cornwallis moved his battered army to Wilmington to rest and resupply.
From Wilmington, Cornwallis, in a move that became a subject of contemporary and historical debate, led his army into Virginia, where he joined with other British troops that had been raiding economic and military targets in that colony. Ineffectually opposed by a smaller Continental Army under the Marquis de Lafayette, he was eventually ordered to establish a well-defended port by General Sir Henry Clinton. Poor communications in the British establishment and French naval superiority over the Chesapeake Bay caused him to become entrapped at Yorktown without the possibility of reinforcement; he surrendered after three weeks of siege, on October 17, 1781. He was released on parole, and returned to England in December of that year. He and General Clinton engaged in a highly public exchange after the 1781 campaign in which each sought to deflect blame for its failure.
Background
Charles, Earl Cornwallis was a military officer born into an aristocratic family. His family had a distinguished record of public and military service, and Cornwallis was no exception.Wickwire (1970), pp. 10–11 Eager for action, he served with the British Army in Europe during the Seven Years' War, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel.Wickwire (1970), pp. 25–28 During those years he also served first in the House of Commons of Great Britain, and then, upon his accession to the title of Earl of Cornwallis in 1762, in the House of Lords.Ross, p. 9 He was politically aligned with the Whigs, and was sympathetic to the complaints of the British colonists in North America, voting against the 1765 Stamp Act. When it was repealed the following year, he was one of a few voters against the Declaratory Act, in which Parliament continued to claim authority over the colonies.Wickwire (1970), p. 41 Also in 1766, he was given the colonelcy of the 33rd Regiment of Foot. In the following years he continued to argue politically in support of the colonists even as tensions rose between them and the Parliament.Ross, p. 11 When the North ministry rose to power in 1770, Cornwallis adopted a less active voice in politics, and avoided seeking political appointments.Wickwire (1970), pp. 45–46
In 1768 he married Jemima Tullekin Jones, the daughter of a regimental colonel.Wickwire (1970), p. 39 They had two children, a boy and a girl, before Jemima died in 1779, and were by all accounts a happy, devoted couple.Wickwire (1970), p. 40
American War of Independence After the opening skirmishes of the war took place near Boston, Cornwallis put his politics aside and sought active service. Despite his opposition to the king's colonial policy, Cornwallis had retained King George III's favour, and was rapidly promoted. On September 29, 1775, he was promoted to major general. In November he offered to serve in North America on a proposed expedition to the southern colonies, even though the number of officers that were senior to him in rank meant he was unlikely to get an independent command. This generosity was appreciated by the king and by Lord George Germain, the secretary of state for the colonies.Wickwire (1970), pp. 79–80 On January 1, 1776, he was given the rank of lieutenant general in North America.Wickwire (1970), p. 46 His orders from Lord Germain were to accompany a convoy of troops from Cork, Ireland to North America, where he was to join at Cape Fear, North Carolina with General Sir Henry Clinton, who was bringing troops from Boston for operations in the southern colonies. Clinton arrived at Cape Fear well before the earl, since logistics delayed the convoy's departure, and then bad weather slowed its progress across the Atlantic. Cornwallis expected to have good relations with Clinton; a mutual friend, William Phillips, reported Cornwallis to be "very happy to think he shall serve under an old friend and a man he has so good an opinion of."Wickwire (1970), pp. 81–82
These forces then shifted south and participated in the first siege of Charleston in June 1776. Cornwallis was landed with Clinton's troops on Long Island, where they were unable to cross the deep channel separating the island from Sullivan's Island, where the principal colonial defenses were located. The colonists brought artillery up to oppose any attempted crossing, and the landing was a failure, as was the naval cannonade of Fort Sullivan.Wickwire (1970), p. 85
New York campaign After the failure in South Carolina, Clinton and Cornwallis transported their troops north to serve under William Howe in the campaign for New York City. In the Battle of Long Island, Cornwallis led the reserve division that took part in the successful flanking of the American position on Gowanus Heights.Fischer, p. 95 Cornwallis's role in the following weeks was minor; his command was not directly involved in the battles that drove George Washington across the Hudson River and into New Jersey. At the fall of Fort Washington, Cornwallis's troops sealed one of the last escape routes.Fischer, p. 121 General Howe then gave Cornwallis his first chance at an independent command, assigning him to capture Fort Lee across the river from Fort Washington. The Americans occupying that fortification were led by Nathanael Greene, who would later face Cornwallis in the south, and only barely made their escape. Cornwallis's prizes in the bloodless seizure of the fort included tents, guns, and other military supplies.Fischer, pp. 121–125 Washington ended up withdrawing all the way across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, with Cornwallis in pursuit until his force reached New Brunswick. His troops were exhausted from the chase, and his orders from Howe were to go no further.Wickwire (1970), p. 92 Cornwallis, who was criticized for disobeying or disregarding Clinton's orders in later campaigns, observed that he would have disobeyed Howe's orders if he believed further pursuit would have gained material advantage for the British.Wickwire (1970), p. 93 Howe joined him on December 6, and led the pursuit to the Delaware with Cornwallis in the van. In his orders of December 14, Howe recognized the successful close of the campaign "much to the honor of his lordship and the officers and soldiers under his command."Wickwire (1970), p. 95
Trenton and Princeton After the New York City campaign and the subsequent occupation of New Jersey by the British army, Cornwallis applied for leave to return home. He was preparing to sail from New York when orders arrived cancelling his leave. Washington's successful surprise attack on Trenton on the morning of December 26 demanded a response, and Howe ordered Cornwallis back to New Jersey to deal with Washington.
Cornwallis rode into New Jersey on New Year's Day 1777 and gathered together the scattered British and German garrisons at Princeton, where an army of 8,000 came together.Fischer, p. 291 Leaving 3,000 men in posts at Princeton and Maidenhead, Cornwallis advanced with the remaining 5,000 down the main road to Trenton early on January 2, where Washington had established a strong position on the south side of the Assunpink Creek.Fischer, p. 278 He rejected advice from the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop, who proposed a two-column approach that would turn Washington's right flank.
After a running series of skirmishes designed to delay the British march, Cornwallis finally reached Trenton and came upon Washington's position around sunset. In the battle that followed, Cornwallis's forces made three attempts to either cross bridges or ford the creek; all were successfully repulsed.Wickwire (1970), p. 96 Rather than attempt a nighttime assault across unknown terrain against Washington's position, Cornwallis ordered his troops to camp, noting that he could "bag the fox" in the morning. During the night, however, Washington's forces slipped around his, and successfully attacked the British outpost at Princeton. Although the Continental Army's disengagement was due in large part to Washington's use of deception, including the maintenance of blazing campfires and the presence of a small detachment of troops to keep up camp sounds throughout the night, Cornwallis also neglected to send out sufficient patrols to monitor Washington's activities.Wickwire (1970), p. 97 When the disappearance of Washington's army was discovered in the morning, Cornwallis immediately gave chase, but his troops only began to arrive two hours after the Princeton troops surrendered.Fischer, p. 340 Washington, his forces tired out after the night march and battle, moved north toward Morristown, while Cornwallis returned to New Brunswick, where the large base had been left garrisoned by a single regiment, and included the British warchest.Fischer, p. 343
Cornwallis remained in New Jersey through the winter, where an ongoing series of skirmishes kept the German and British forces under his command constantly on edge. Persistent attacks on Cornwallis's own regiment, the 33rd, prompted him to plan a significant retaliatory attack. In early spring 1777, Cornwallis surprised Benjamin Lincoln's garrison at Bound Brook on April 13, very nearly capturing Lincoln.Martin, p. 20 In June, General Howe ordered a movement in force into New Jersey apparently in an attempt to draw Washington into battle from a strong position in the Watchung Mountains.Martin, p. 23 This move failed, although Cornwallis very nearly cut off a portion of Washington's army in the June 26 Battle of Short Hills.Martin, pp. 24–25 These engagements had no long-term impact, and Howe withdrew his forces onto naval transports for an expedition to capture Philadelphia.Martin, p. 26
Philadelphia campaign