Experimental archaeometallurgy is a subset of experimental archaeology that specifically involves past metallurgical processes most commonly involving the replication of copper and iron objects as well as testing the methodology behind the production of ancient metals and metal objects. Metals and elements used primarily as alloying materials, such as tin, lead, and arsenic, are also a part of experimental research.
Experimental archaeometallurgy as a sub-discipline The theory behind experimental archaeology comes from the new archaeology technique of the 1950s to use modern day examples in the form of experiments and ethnologies as analogues to past processes. Experimental archaeometallurgy is considered a part of general experimental archaeology and is rarely separated in the literature and as such, many of the principles stay the same while there is a greater focus on a single subject.
Archaeometallurgy works as a good field for experimental reproduction because of the evidence that is provided from excavation is a good starting point for reconstruction. Metallurgical remains provide a durable product that has relatively durable evidence of production methods such as slag and refractory ceramic remains. Experimentation comes in a varied amount of forms including object replication, system replication, behavioral replication, and process replication.Mathieu J. R., 2002. Introduction – Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes. In J. R. Mathieu (ed.) Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes 1-11. Oxford, Archaeopress. BAR International Series 1023.
Research problems Archaeometallurgical experimentation typically takes place in controlled laboratories or tries to remain as authentic as possible by being conducted using only the materials and facilities that were available to the subjects whose technology is trying to be reconstructed. Regardless of location though, the experimentation is always conducted under a different mindset outside the context of what was originally intended.Pleiner R., 2000. Iron in Archaeology: The European Bloomery Smelters. Prague, Archaeology Ustav Avcr. A constant problem in any type of experimental archaeology is the cultural distance between the archaeologist and the individual who originally was involved with the metallurgy. This difference in mindset may lead to misunderstandings in the processes behind the metallurgy.Killick D., 1991. The Relevance of Recent African Iron-Smelting Practice to Reconstructions of Prehistoric Smelting Technology. In P.D. Glumes (ed.) Recent Trends in Archaeometallurgical Research 47-54. Philadelphia, MASCA. MASCA Research Papers in Science and Anthropology Vol. 8 Part 1. Second to this, not all experiments are successful and it is hard to determine if this is the fault of the techniques used or the individual conducting the experiment.
Connection with ethnoarchaeology Ethnoarchaeology has been widely used in conjunction with experimental archaeology using the techniques of modern peoples as analogues to the processes of the past. The attempted use of ethnology in archaeology tries to counteract the cultural distance of the researcher from process by changing the context of experimentation. Africa has played a large role in reconstructing copper smelting and bloomery iron furnaces as there are still several places that practice a workshop production of iron.Bernus S. and Echard N., 1985. Metal Working in the Agadez Region (Niger): An Ethno-Archaeological Approach. In Paul T. Craddock and M. J. Hughes (ed.) Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity 71-80. London, British Museum. Occasional Papers No. 48.Killick 1991 Killick has been one such archaeologist to utilize surviving iron production in Africa to gain further insight into how other furnaces from around the world may have been constructed.
Mining Mining is among the first steps of producing metal and as such is one of the foci of experimental archaeometallurgy. However, experimental research on mining is mostly limited to firesetting and the reproduction and use of mining tools.
Firesetting Firesetting is the process of exposing a rock face to high temperatures to induce cracking, spalling, and an overall increase to the brittleness of the rock in order to make it more susceptible to mining processes.Timberlake S., 2007. The Use of Experimental Archaeology/Archaeometallurgy for the Understanding and Reconstruction of Early Bronze Age Mining and Smelting Technologies. In S. L. Niece et al. (ed.) Metals and Mines: Studies in Archaeometallurgy 27-36. London, Archetype Press. Understanding the process of firesetting has been a crucial element to the development of an archaeological history of mining and as such has been the subject of several experiments to reproduce the technique.Crew P., 1990. Firesetting Experiment at Rhiw Goch. 1989. In P. Crew and S. Crew (ed.) Early Mining in the British Isles 57. Maentwrog, Plas Tan y Bwlch. Occasional Paper No. 1.Lewis A., 1990. Firesetting Experiments on the Great Orme, 1989. In P. Crew and S. Crew (ed.) Early Mining in the British Isles 55-56. Maentwrog, Plas Tan y Bwlch. Occasional Paper No. 1.Pickin J. and Timberlake S., 1988. Stone Hammers and Firesetting. Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society Ltd, Vol. 10 No. 3. 165-167.Timberlake S., 1990. Firesetting and Primitive Mining Experiments, Cwmystwyth, 1989. In P. Crew and S. Crew (ed.) Early Mining in the British Isles 53-54. Maentwrog, Plas Tan y Bwlch. Occasional Paper No. 1.Timberlake 2007 Typically firesetting experiments are conducted by setting a fire next to a predetermined rock face while taking measurements on the amount of and type of fuel used, temperatures of the fire and rock face, the amount of spalling before and after excavation, as well as the amount of time required for the different procedures.Crew 1990Lewis 1990Pickin and Timberlake 1988Timberlake 1990 This examination allows for several possible inferences to be made about the mining process including the total amount of fuel a mining site may have needed to complete and its effects on the surrounding environment as well as how mining labor could have been organized. One outcome of firesetting experimentation is the realization that the quenching, or dousing the rock face with water after heating, is not necessary to making the rock face easier to excavate.Timberlake 2007, 30 The quenching process had been a standard step in most experiments with firesetting, but now more research is necessary to answer the new question of why quenching was used if it was not effective.
Mining tools Experimental reconstruction of tools used in prehistoric mining is often written about in conjunction with the tools use after the process of firesetting. The experimental mining tool assemblage are primarily made up of hammerstones and antler picks that are reconstructed using willow and hazel sticks, rawhide, and hemp string to implement various hafting techniques and methods of utilization.Craddock B., 1990. The Experimental Hafting of Stone Mining Hammers. In P. Crew and S. Crew (ed.) Early Mining in the British Isles 58. Maentwrog, Plas Tan y Bwlch. Occasional Paper No. 1
Smelting Smelting or the reduction of an ore to its metallic state is the primary source of experimentation in archaeometallurgy.Coles J., 1979. Experimental Archaeology. London et al., Academic PressBamberger M., 1985. The Working Conditions of the Ancient Copper Smelting Process. In Paul T. Craddock and M. J. Hughes (ed.) Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity 151-157. London, British Museum. Occasional Papers No. 48.Bamberger M. and Wincierzt P., 1990. Ancient Smelting of Oxide Copper Ore. In R. Rothenberg (ed.) The Ancient Metallurgy of Copper 78-122. London, Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies.Merkel J. F., 1990. Experimental Reconstruction of Bronze Age Copper Smelting Based on Archaeological Evidence from Timna. In R. Rothenberg (ed.) The Ancient Metallurgy of Copper 78-122. London, Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies.Tylecote R. F., 1991. Summary of Result of Experimental Work on Early Copper Smelting. . In W.A. Oddy (ed.) Aspects of Early Metallurgy 5-12. London, British Museum. Department of Science Occasional Paper No. 17.Tylecote R. F., and Boydell P. J., 1978. Experiments on Copper Smelting Based on Early Furnaces Found at Timna. In B. Rothenberg (ed.) Chalcolithic Copper Smelting: Excavation and Experiments. London, Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies. Archaeo-Metallurgy Monograph No. 1.Tylecote R. F. and Merkel J. F., 1985. Experimental Smelting Techniques: Achievements and Future. In Paul T. Craddock and M. J. Hughes (ed.) Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity 3-20. London, British Museum. Occasional Papers No. 48.Zwicker U., 1991. Investigations on the Extractive Metallurgy of Cu/Sb/As Ore and Excavated Smelting Products From Norsun-Tepe (Keban) on The Upper Euphrates (3500-2800 B.C.). In W.A. Oddy (ed.) Aspects of Early Metallurgy 13-26. London, British Museum. Department of Science Occasional Paper No. 17. In its simplest form smelting can be accomplished by placing an ore sample between two pieces of combusting charcoal in an oxygen reducing atmosphere with a compressed air source to feed the combustion and result in temperatures high enough to smelt metal.Zwicker 1991 But to reach this final metallic state several things need to be done first including the processing of the ore to remove waste or gangue material, the possible roasting of the ore, the smelting of the ore, and then there is the possibility of refining the metal through a series of remelts. Then, through chemical or microscopic analysis, the products of the smelt are analyzed and compared with the findings of archaeological excavation in order to examine the likelihood of various manufacturing processes.Craddock Paul, Meeks N., and S. Timberlake, 2007. On the Edge of Success: The Scientific Examination of the Products of the Early Mines Research Group Smelting Experiments. In S. L. Niece et al. (ed.) Metals and Mines: Studies in Archaeometallurgy 37-45. London, Archetype Press.Tylecote 1991
Copper and its alloys The first recorded experimental work in copper was conducted by Cushing in 1894 in order to demonstrate that copper plate found in Hopewell mounds in Ohio could have been produced by the Hopewell people and not come from European trade.Cushing F. H., 1894. Primitive Copper Working: an Experimental Study. American Anthropologist, Vol. 7, No. 1, 93-117.Tylecote and Merkel 1985, 4 In his experiments, Cushing used antler and stone tools to cut out sheets of copper and puncture round holes in them through a method of pressure and grinding.Cushing 1894 In addition to the copper sheet experiments, Cushing also conducted smelting experiments reconstructed from finding at Salado Valley, Arizona pueblo excavations to reproduce copper artifacts.
Iron The experimental archaeometallurgy of iron is more recent than that of copper in that for the most part was not widely studied until the mid-20th century.Pleiner 2000, 132Tylecote and Merkel 1985, 8 This can be attributed to the modern smelting of wrought iron still being produced as an industry up until 1900, when the last of the large-scale production shut down, along with the belief among researchers that many of the same techniques had been passed down since the inception of bloomery iron.Killick 1991, 47 A static technique simply was not the case as the technology used to make Roman Era iron showed the use of a technology that had long since disappeared. That being said research in iron has progressed beyond that of copper due to the greater amount of historic text and surviving remains of iron production.