The history of southern India covers a span of over four thousand years, during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires.
The period of known history of southern India begins with the Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE – 200 BCE), Sangam period (c. 600 BCE – 300 CE) and Medieval southern India until the 15th century CE. Dynasties of Chera, Chola, Pandyan, Pallava, Travancore, Cochin, Zamorin, Kolathunadu, Chalukya, Satavahana, Rashtrakuta, Western Ganga, Kakatiya, Hoysala, Seuna, Bhonsle, Gaekwad, Scindia, Holkar, Patwardhan, Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu and Bahmani were at their peak during various periods of history.
The Vijayanagara Empire rose in response to the Islamic intervention and covered most of southern India. It acted as a bulwark against the Deccan Sultanate and Mughal expansion into the south. When the European powers arrived during the 16th and 18th centuries CE, the southern kingdoms, most notably Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, resisted the new threats, but many parts eventually succumbed to British conquest. The British created the Madras Presidency which acted as an administrative centre for the rest of southern India, with them being princely states. After Indian independence, southern India was linguistically divided into the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana and Kerala.
Prehistoric period to Iron Age
South India remained in the Mesolithic until 2500 BCE. Microlith production is attested for the period 6000 to 3000 BCE. The Neolithic period lasted from 2500 BCE to 1000 BCE, followed by the Iron Age, characterized by megalithic burials.One such site was found at Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu— Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in the Tirunelveli district and in northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.K. A. N. Sastri, A History of South India, pp. 49–51 The Krishna Tungabhadra valley was also a place for Megalithic culture in South India.Archaeologists have discovered iron objects at six sites in Tamil Nadu, dating back to 2,953–3,345 BCE, or between 5,000 and 5,400 years old, which suggest that an Iron Age might have begun in Tamil Nadu.
Beginning of Iron Age
The earliest Iron Age sites in southern India date from c. 1200 to 200 BCE, and some of the sites are contemporary with the Sangam period.
Hallur in Karnataka and Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu are notable Iron Age sites of ancient southern India.Front Page : Some pottery parallels. The Hindu (2007-05-25). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Ancient period
Evidence in the form of documents and inscriptions do not appear often in the history of ancient southern India. Although there are signs that the history dates back to several centuries BCE, we only have an authentic archaeological evidence from the early centuries of the common era. Until about 600 BC, literature composed to the north of the Vindhyas do not display any cognizance of the region to the south.Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p216 During the reign of Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) the three Tamil dynasties of Chola, Chera and Pandya were ruling the south.
Pandyan dynasty
The Pandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties (the Chola and Chera being the other two), who ruled the Tamil country from prehistoric times, until the end of the 15th century. They ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are mentioned in Sangam literature (c. 400 BCE – 300 CE) as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. The early Pandya dynasty described in Sangam literature went into obscurity during the invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century CE, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century CE, and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251 CE) expanded their empire into the Telugu country and invaded Sri Lanka, conquering the northern half of the island. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 14th century CE. The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced the finest pearls known in the ancient world.
Chola Empire
The Cholas were one of the three main dynasties to rule southern India from ancient times. Karikala Chola (late 1st century CE) was the most famous king during the early years of the dynasty and managed to gain ascendency over the Pandyas and Cheras. The Chola dynasty, however, went into a period of decline from the 4th century CE. This period coincided with the ascendency of the Kalabhras, who moved down from the northern Tamil country, displacing the established kingdoms, and ruled over most of southern India for almost 300 years.
Vijayalaya Chola revived the Chola dynasty in 850 CE by conquering Thanjavur, defeating Ilango Mutharaiyar, and making it his capital. His son Aditya defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and extended the Chola territories to Tondaimandalam. The centres of the Chola realm were at Kanchi (Kanchipuram) and Thanjavur. One of the most powerful Chola monarchs was Raja Raja Chola, who reigned from 985 to 1014 CE. His army defeated the navy of the Cheras at Thiruvananthapuram, and annexed Anuradhapura and the northern province of Ceylon. Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, invaded Bengal, and undertook a great naval campaign that occupied parts of Malaya, Burma, and Sumatra. The Chola dynasty began declining by the 13th century and ended in 1279 CE. The Cholas were great builders and have left some of the most beautiful examples of early Tamil temple architecture. Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur is a fine example and has been listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Chera dynasty
The Chera kingdom was one of the Tamil dynasties who ruled southern India from ancient times until around the 12th century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the Malabar Coast, Coimbatore, Erode, Namakkal, Karur and Salem Districts in South India, which now form part of the modern day Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Throughout the reign of the Early Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their territories, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast (Muziris), Karur and Coimbatore districts.
Trade relations The region of Kerala (Cheras) was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with Arabs, Sumerians and Babylonians.Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala , p. 79; , Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Richard W. Franke; Year: 2006. Phoenicians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially spices and cotton fabrics.Faces of Goa: a journey through the history and cultural revolution of Goa and other communities influenced by the Portuguese By Karin Larsen (p. 392) Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices. The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries. They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.
Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of the Chera kingdom. Megasthanes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Magadhan king Chandragupta Maurya (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and a Pandyan trade centre. Pliny mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from the Red Sea ports of Egypt purely depending on the south west monsoon winds. Later, the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes that "both Muziris and Nelcynda are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Kozhikode, and Barace near Alappuzha, which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire.Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010
Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty).Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. Journal of Roman Archaeology, 14, 334–50. The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period. The port of Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere near Kozhikode. Its exact location is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.
According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However, Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrikes starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at 50,000,000 sesterces.According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates.Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of Malabar peppers.Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–73.Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. Contemporary Tamil literature, Puṟanāṉūṟu and Akanaṉūṟu, speak of the Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of Malabar pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand in the West. The contact with Middle East and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of Cochin Jews, Mappila Muslims, and Syrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.
Satavahana Empire
The Śātavāhana Empire was a royal Indian dynasty based at present-day Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Pratisthana (Paithan) in present-day Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 300 BCE onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan Empire.