A de facto embassy is an office or organisation that serves de facto as an embassy in the absence of normal or official diplomatic relations among countries, usually to represent nations which lack full diplomatic recognition, regions or dependencies of countries, or territories over which sovereignty is disputed. In some cases, diplomatic immunity and extraterritoriality may be granted.New Taiwan-U.S. diplomatic immunity pact a positive move: scholar , Focus Taiwan, 12 February 2013
Alternatively, states which have broken off direct bilateral ties will be represented by an "interests section" of another embassy, belonging to a third country that has agreed to serve as a protecting power and is recognised by both states. When relations are exceptionally tense, such as during a war, the interests section is staffed by diplomats from the protecting power. For example, when Iraq and the U.S. broke diplomatic relations due to the Gulf War, Poland became the protecting power for the United States. The United States Interests Section of the Polish Embassy in Iraq was headed by a Polish diplomat.Former Polish Director of U.S. Interests Section in Baghdad Krzysztof Bernacki Receives the Secretary's Award for Distinguished Service , Department of State, 28 February 2003 However, if the host country agrees, an interests section may be staffed by diplomats from the sending country. From 1977 to 2015, the United States Interests Section in Havana was staffed by Americans, even though it was formally a section of the Swiss Embassy to Cuba.
Governments of states not recognized by the receiving state and of territories that make no claim to be sovereign states may set up offices abroad that do not have official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. Examples include the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices; Somaliland's Representative Offices in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, and Washington, D.C.; the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices that represent the government of that territory; and Bermuda House, Falkland House and Gibraltar House in London, representing the three dependent territories in their "motherland". Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents. They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the Hong Kong offices in London and Toronto, for example.
Taiwan
Foreign missions in Taiwan
Many countries maintain formal diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China but operate unofficial "trade missions" or "representative offices" in Taipei to deal with Taiwan-related commercial and consular issues. Often, these delegations may forward visa applications to their nearest embassy or consulate rather than processing them locally.De facto embassies in Taipei folding the flag, Asia Times, 14 June 2011
When the United States recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate entity of "China" in 1979, it established a non-governmental body known as the American Institute in Taiwan to serve its interests on the island. By contrast, other countries were represented by privately operated bodies; the United Kingdom was informally represented by the "Anglo-Taiwan Trade Committee", while France was similarly represented by a "Trade Office".Privatising the State , Béatrice Hibou, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2004, pages 157–158
These were later renamed the "British Trade and Cultural Office" and "French Institute" respectively, and, were headed by career diplomats on secondment, rather than being operated by chambers of commerce or trade departments.
France now maintains a "French Office in Taipei", with cultural, consular and economic sections, while the "British Office" and German Institute Taipei perform similar functions on behalf of the United Kingdom and Germany.
Other countries which have broken off diplomatic relations with Taiwan also established de facto missions. In 1972, Japan established the "Interchange Association, Japan" (renamed the "Japan-Taiwan Exchange Association" in 2017), headed by personnel "on leave" from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.The International Energy Relations of China , Kim Woodard Stanford University Press, 1980, page 125 This became known as the "Japanese formula", and would be adopted by other countries like the Philippines in 1975, which established the "Asian Exchange Center", replacing its former embassy. This was renamed the "Manila Economic and Cultural Office" in 1989.
Australia ended formal diplomatic relations in 1972, but did not establish an "Australian Commerce and Industry Office" until 1981.The Biographical Dictionary of the Australian Senate: 1962–1983, Ann Millar, UNSW Press, 2000, page 244 This was under control of the Australian Chamber of Commerce.Prospects for Australian Seafood Exports: A Case Study of the Taiwanese Market , Malcolm Tull Asia Research Centre on Social, Political, and Economic Change, Murdoch University, 1993, page 10 It was renamed the "Australian Office in Taipei" in 2012.Australian office renamed , Taipei Times, 30 May 2012 By contrast, New Zealand, which also ended formal diplomatic relations in 1972, did not establish the "New Zealand Commerce and Industry Office in Taipei" until 1989.Republic of China Yearbook Taiwan , Kwang Hwa Publishing Company, 1989, page 227
South Korea, which broke off diplomatic relations with Taiwan in 1992, has been represented by the "Korean Mission in Taipei" since 1993.Seoul tries to mend Taipei tie , Taiwan Today, 8 November 1996 South Africa, which ended diplomatic ties in 1998, is represented by the "Liaison Office of the Republic of South Africa".
India, which has always had diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, established an "India Taipei Association" in 1995, which is also authorised to provide consular and passport services.
Singapore, despite close ties with Taiwan, did not establish formal diplomatic relations, although it was the last ASEAN country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1990.Contemporary Southeast Asia , Volumes 7–8, Singapore University Press, 1985, page 215 Consequently, it only established a "Trade Representative Office" in Taipei in 1979, renamed the "Singapore Trade Office in Taipei" in 1990.American Journal of Chinese Studies , Volumes 3–4, American Association for Chinese Studies, 1996, page 170
Taiwan missions in other countries
Similarly, Taiwan maintains "representative offices" in other countries, which handle visa applications as well as relations with local authorities.Visa Requirements for the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan , Taipei Representative Office in the U.K., 1 July 2011 These establishments use the term "Taipei" instead of "Taiwan" or "Republic of China" since the term "Taipei" avoids implying that Taiwan is a separate country from China or that there are "Two Chinas", both of which would cause difficulties for their host countries.
In 2007, for example, the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Dermot Ahern, confirmed that Ireland recognised the Government of the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of "China", and that while the Taipei Representative Office in Dublin had a representative function in relation to economic and cultural promotion, it had no diplomatic or political status.Written Answers – Diplomatic Relations. Thursday, 8 February 2007 (Ref No: 3911/07)
Before the 1990s, the names of these offices would vary considerably from country to country. For example, in the United States, Taipei's mission was known as the "Coordination Council for North American Affairs" (CCNAA),Memorandum of Understanding between the American Institute in Taiwan and the Coordination Council for North American Affairs on the Exchange of Information Concerning Commodity Futures and Options Matters , Signed at Arlington, Virginia this 11th day of January 1993 in Japan as the "Association of East Asian Relations" (AEAR),International Law of Recognition and the Status of the Republic of China , Hungdah Chiu, in The United States and the Republic of China: Democratic Friends, Strategic Allies, and Economic Partners, Steven W. Mosher Transaction Publishers, 1992, page 24 in the Philippines as the "Pacific Economic and Cultural Center" and in the United Kingdom as the "Free Chinese Centre".The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958 , Steven Tsang, I.B.Tauris, 2006, page 39
However, in May 1992, the AEAR offices in Japan became Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office,Republic of China Yearbook Kwang Hwa Publishing Company, 1998, 145 as did the "Free Chinese Centre" in London.Former diplomats to Great Britain remember Thatcher, The China Post, 10 April 2013 In September 1994, the Clinton Administration announced that the CCNAA office in Washington could similarly be called the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office.Taiwan's Relations with Mainland China: A Tail Wagging Two Dogs , Chi Su Routledge, 2008, page 31
Earlier in 1989, the "Pacific Economic and Cultural Center" in Manila became the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in the Philippines".Ensuring Interests: Dynamics of China-Taiwan Relations and Southeast Asia , Khai Leong Ho, Guozhong He, Institute of China Studies, University of Malaya, 2006, page 25 In 1991, the "Taiwan Marketing Service" office in Canberra, Australia, established in 1988, also became a "Taipei Economic and Cultural Office", along with the "Far East Trading Company" offices in Sydney and Melbourne.Australia and China: Partners in Asia , Colin Mackerras, Macmillan Education, 1996, page 33
Other names are still used elsewhere; for example, Taiwan's mission in Moscow is formally known as the "Representative Office in Moscow for the Taipei–Moscow Economic and Cultural Coordination Commission", the mission in New Delhi is known as the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Center",MoU between India-Taipei Association (ITA) in Taipei and Taipei Economic and Cultural Center (TECC) in India on cooperation in the field of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises , Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Cabinet, 14 October 2015 while the mission in Pretoria is known as the "Taipei Liaison Office".
In Papua New Guinea and Fiji, the Taiwanese missions are known as the "Trade Mission of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in Papua New Guinea" and "Trade Mission of the Republic of China (Taiwan) to the Republic of Fiji" respectively, despite both countries having diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. The Taipei Representative Office in Singapore was similarly known as the "Trade Mission of the Republic of China" until 1990.
In addition, Taiwan maintains "Taipei Economic and Cultural Offices" in Hong Kong and Macau, both Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China. Previously, Taiwan was represented in Hong Kong by the "Chung Hwa Travel Service", established in 1966.Is name change a game changer? , Taipei Times, 17 July 2011 In Macau, it was represented by the "Taipei Trade and Tourism Office", established in 1989 and renamed the "Taipei Trade and Cultural Office" in 1999.Macao allows Taipei office to issue visas to Chinese , Taipei Times, 7 January 2002 In May 2011, the "Chung Hwa Travel Service" was renamed the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong, and in May 2012, the "Taipei Trade and Cultural Office" became the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Macau.Macau representative office in Taiwan opens The China Post, 14 May 2012