The Law of Moses (), also called the Mosaic Law, is the law said to have been revealed to Moses by God. The term primarily refers to the Torah or the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
In Judaism, this set of laws forms one side of the covenant between the Jewish people and God. This covenant is sometimes referred to as the Mosaic covenant or Sinaitic covenant (after the biblical Mount Sinai). These terms are sometimes used to refer to the laws themselves or to the texts which contain the laws.
Terminology The expressions "Law of Moses" and "Torah of Moses" are biblical designations for teachings and laws associated with Moses. The Hebrew term Torah (תורה) can mean "instruction" or "teaching" as well as "law", and its meaning varies according to context. The expression "Torah of Moses" occurs in the Hebrew Bible, including in Joshua, Kings, Ezra, and Nehemiah.
The term Pentateuch, derived from Greek and meaning a work consisting of five books, refers specifically to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. "Torah" is also commonly used for these five books, although the Pentateuch contains both legal material and extensive narrative. Biblical scholar John Van Seters therefore cautions that translating or understanding Torah simply as "law" can give a misleading impression of the Pentateuch's contents.
The meanings of "Torah" and "the Law" can also extend beyond the legal commandments themselves. In Jewish usage, Torah may refer more broadly to Jewish religious teaching and, in Rabbinic Judaism, can encompass both the Written Torah and Oral Torah. In the New Testament, the Greek word nomos ("law") most often refers to the Torah of Moses, but its precise referent varies by context and can include the Pentateuch as a whole rather than only its legal commandments.
Law in the Ancient Near East The "Law of Moses" in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions were seen as offences against God rather than solely as offences against society (civil law).John H. Walton (1990). Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, p. 233. "The ancient Near Eastern collections do not include cultic law; rather, their focus is on civil law. As a generalization, in the ancient Near East violation of law is an offense against society. In Israel a violation of law is an..." This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu (–2050 BCE), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (, of which almost half concerns contract law).
However, the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented,Andrew E. Hill, John H. Walton (2000). A survey of the Old Testament, p. 52. "The influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the form and function of Hebrew law is undeniable and widely documented. Along with this contemporary cultural influence, the Old Testament affirms the divine origin of..." for example, in principles such as ("eye for an eye"), and in the content of the provisions. Some similarities are striking, such as in the provisions concerning a man-goring ox (Code of Hammurabi laws 250–252, Exodus 21:28–32). Some writers have posited direct influence: David P. Wright, for example, asserts that the Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout dependent upon the Laws of Hammurabi", "a creative rewriting of Mesopotamian sources to be viewed as an academic abstraction rather than a digest of laws".David P. Wright (2009). Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Others posit indirect influence, such as via Aramaic or Phoenician intermediaries.Marc Van De Mieroop (2016). Philosophy before the Greeks: The Pursuit of Truth in Ancient Babylonia. Princeton University Press. There is consensus that the similarities are a result of inheriting common oral traditions. Another example, the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor.Jimmy Jack McBee Roberts (2002). The Bible and the ancient Near East: collected essays, p. 46. "The Israelite Sabbatical Year, which seems to have the same purpose and recurs at about the same interval, appears to be an Israelite adaptation of this mesharum-edict tradition." An important distinction, however, is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel, before the monarchic period beginning with David, was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy, although God is most commonly portrayed like a king.
Hebrew Bible
Moses and authorship of the Law
According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses led the early Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, and thereafter God established the Mosaic covenant with the Israelites and their descendants. Based on historical records and archaeological evidence, most scholars agree the Biblical account (which was written centuries later than its narrative setting) has some historical basis, although there is little of historical fact in it. Traditionally the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to Moses, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and/or his officials), and the Levites became the guardians and interpreters of the law.
The Book of Deuteronomy () depicts Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the ". Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 24:4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the , and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel; Exodus 34:27, "And the said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with Israel; and "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the established on Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses." According to the biblical narrative, the Book of the Covenant, recording all the commands of the , was written by Moses in the desert and read to the people, and to seal the covenant, the blood of sacrificial oxen was then sprinkled, half on an altar and half on the people.
Later references to the Law in the Hebrew Bible The Book of Kings relates how a "law of Moses" was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah (r. 641–609 BCE).
Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses" is found in .
Content The legal material of the Pentateuch is distributed primarily throughout Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Biblical scholars commonly identify several major collections of law within these books, including the Decalogue, the Covenant Code, Priestly legislation, the Holiness Code, and the Deuteronomic Code. These collections contain both overlapping and distinctive laws, and their literary and historical relationships are a subject of scholarly study.
The Covenant Code, found principally in Exodus 20:22–23:33, includes laws concerning worship as well as civil and social matters such as slavery, personal injury, property, restitution, and the treatment of socially vulnerable people. Biblical law frequently presents such requirements within the framework of the covenant between God and Israel.
Priestly legislation, found particularly in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, includes laws concerning sacrifices, the priesthood, ritual purity, sacred space, and festivals. Within this material, the Holiness Code, conventionally identified with Leviticus 17–26, combines ritual, ethical, and social requirements and repeatedly calls upon the Israelites to be holy.
The Deuteronomic Code, generally identified with Deuteronomy 12–26, contains laws concerning worship, religious festivals, judicial and political institutions, family and social relations, warfare, and other aspects of Israelite life. Deuteronomy presents these laws within a broader covenantal and exhortatory framework and frequently reworks or reinterprets legal material found elsewhere in the Pentateuch.
In Judaism
In Judaism, the Law of Moses is identified with the Torah, particularly the commandments contained in the five books traditionally associated with Moses. Rabbinic tradition enumerates 613 commandments (mitzvot) in the Torah, although the applicability of individual commandments varies according to their subject and circumstances. Some commandments apply specifically to particular groups or depend upon institutions and conditions described in the Torah, such as the Temple in Jerusalem, the priesthood, or agricultural life in the Land of Israel.
In rabbinic tradition, non-Jews are not generally regarded as obligated to observe the full body of commandments given to Israel. Instead, the Noahide laws are understood as commandments applicable to humanity generally.
Second Temple Judaism
During the Second Temple period, the Torah became increasingly central to Jewish religious life and identity. Alongside the Jerusalem Temple, the Torah constituted one of the principal institutions shared by Jewish communities in Judea and the diaspora. During this period, the biblical text developed toward forms resembling those preserved in later Jewish tradition, while the Torah acquired increasing religious authority.
Interpretation of the Law of Moses during this period was diverse. Jewish writings from the Persian, Hellenistic, and early Roman periods interpreted and applied the Pentateuch in different social and religious settings. The Dead Sea Scrolls, for example, preserve evidence of communities that regarded the Torah of Moses as authoritative while developing distinctive interpretations of its requirements. At Qumran, the expression "Torah of Moses" referred to the Pentateuch, although other writings and community rules could also possess religious authority.
In Christianity
New Testament
The New Testament frequently discusses the Law of Moses, particularly in the Pauline epistles and several of the Gospels. The Greek term nomos ("law") occurs nearly 200 times in the New Testament and usually refers to the Mosaic law or Torah. The New Testament writings differ in their treatment and application of the law, and the relationship between the law and the work of Jesus subsequently became an important issue in Christian theology and ethics.
In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus states that he came not to abolish the Law or the Prophets but to fulfill them (Matthew 5:17). The meaning of "fulfill" and its implications for the continuing applicability of Mosaic law have been interpreted in different ways. David Wilber argues that "fulfill" in this context means to carry out or reveal the law's true meaning rather than to bring it to an end, and consequently interprets the passage as affirming the continuing validity of the Law of Moses. By contrast, Andy Stanley interprets fulfillment as bringing the Mosaic law to an end, writing that Jesus "fulfilled—as in ended—the necessity of the Jewish law."
The applicability of the Law of Moses to Gentile converts was an important issue in early Christianity. According to the Acts of the Apostles, the Council of Jerusalem considered whether Gentile converts should be required to be circumcised and to observe the Law of Moses. The resulting Apostolic Decree imposed several commandments from the Law of Moses on Gentile believers without requiring circumcision.