The Battle of the Ebro (, ) was the longest and largest battle of the Spanish Civil War and the greatest, in terms of manpower, logistics and material ever fought on Spanish soil. It took place between July and November 1938, with fighting mainly concentrated in two areas on the lower course of the Ebro River, the Terra Alta comarca of Catalonia, and the Auts area close to Fayón () in the lower Matarranya, Eastern Lower Aragon. These sparsely populated areas saw the largest array of armies in the war. The battle was a massive blow to the Second Spanish Republic, with tens of thousands left dead or wounded and little effect on the advance of the Nationalists.

Background

By 1938, the Second Spanish Republic was in dire straits. The Republican Northern zone had fallen,Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p.712 and in the winter of 1937/38 the Republican Popular Army had spent its forces in the Battle of Teruel, a series of bloody combats in subzero temperatures around the city of Teruel, which was retaken by the Francoist army in February.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. pp.321–322

Then, the Nationalists launched an offensive in Aragon in March without giving their enemies a chance to recover. Fighting in the middle of bitter winter temperatures, the exhausted Republican army could offer only feeble resistance. By 15 April, Franco's troops reached the Mediterranean Sea at Vinaròs, cutting Republican territory in two. As a result, the Nationalist army conquered Lleida and the hydroelectric dams that provided much of the Catalan industrial areas with electricity.Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p.781

Nevertheless, on 17 March 1938, after the Anschluss, the French government decided to reopen the frontier.Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. pp.782–783 The Republican Army in Catalonia received 18,000 tons of war material between March and mid-June and twelve new divisions were formed from Nationalist prisoners-of-war and an extended call-up, which included conscripts that ranged in age from sixteen years old, the so-called (the baby-bottle call-up), to middle-aged fathers. A new army, the Ebro's army, was then formed.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. pp.349–350

Meanwhile, the Francoist armies attacked the XYZ Line north of Valencia with the intention of capturing the Republican capital, instead of advancing towards Barcelona, fearing that France would enter the war in support of the ailing Republic.Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pages 780–781 In response to the situation, Spanish premier Juan Negrín approved a plan by General Vicente Rojo Lluch to launch attacks against the main Francoist forces advancing towards Valencia. The purpose of the attacks was to relieve the pressure on Valencia and Catalonia, as well as to show European governments that the Republican government was still viable.Graham, Helen. (2005). The Spanish Civil War. A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p.109

Opposing armies Loyalist Army

In order to distract the Nationalist armies that were advancing towards Valencia, the Popular Republican Army decided upon an offensive in the lower Ebro basin. The army was large, but it lacked enough air and artillery support. The Ebro Army was formed on 15 May under Lieutenant Colonel Juan Modesto, merging the 15th and the 5th Army Corps. It would receive reinforcements from the 12th and 18th Army Corps as soon as the battle began.

15th Army Corps The 15th Army Corps XV Cuerpo del Ejército was led by Manuel TagüeñaBeevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. p. 350. from Escaladei and was formed by the following divisions:

35th International Division led by Commander Pedro Mateo Merino, including the XI, XIII and XV International Brigades.Henry, Chris. (1999). The Ebro, 1938: Death Knell of the Republic. Osprey Publishing. p.22 3rd Division, led by Commander Esteban Cabezos Morente, including the 31st, 33rd and 60th mixed brigades. 42nd Division, under Commander Manuel Alvarez, including the 226th, 227th and 59th brigades. In mid-July the 15th Army Corps was reinforced by the 16th Popular Republican Army Division of the 12th Army Corps, the 3rd Cavalry Regiment, anti-aircraft guns, armoured vehicles and army engineers.

5th Army Corps The 5th Army Corps V Cuerpo del Ejército Popular, led by Lieutenant Colonel Enrique Líster, with base in Salou:

11th Division led by Commander Joaquim Rodríguez, including the 1st, 9th and 100th mixed brigades.Henry, Chris. (1999). The Ebro, 1938: Death Knell of the Republic. Osprey Publishing. p.21 46th Division led by Commander Valentín González "El Campesino", including the 10th, 60th and 101st mixed brigades. 45th Division, international division led by Lieutenant Colonel Hans Kahle, including the 12th "Garibaldi", 14th "Marsellesa" and 139th mixed brigades.

12th Army Corps The 12th Army Corps led by Lieutenant Colonel Etelvino Vega, was based at Bisbal de Falset: 16th Division led by Commander Manuel Mora Torres, including the 23rd and 24th mixed brigades. 44th Division led by Ramón Pastor, including the 140th, 144th and 145th mixed brigades.

18th Army Corps The 18th Army Corps, led by Lieutenant Colonel José del Barrio acted as tactical reserve of the two first ones:Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p. 812

27th Division, led by Marcelino Usatorre including the 122nd (with its 1st Battalion, "la Bruixa", 123rd and 124th mixed brigades. 60th Division led by Commander Manuel Ferràndiz, including the 95th, 84th and 224th mixed brigades. 43rd División, led by Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Beltrán Casaña "l'Esquinazau", including the 72nd, 102nd and 130th mixed brigades.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. p. 357

Spanish Nationalist Army

The Morocco Army Corps was positioned on the right bank of the Ebro. Later, the Maestrazgo Army Corps was sent as reinforcements, led by General Rafael García Valiño.

Army of the North General Fidel Davila

Morocco Army Corps The Morocco Army Corps Cuerpo del Ejército de Marruecos led by General Juan Yagüe: 40th División 50th División, led by Colonel Campos. 105th División

Except for the 50th División, made up of relatively inexperienced soldiers, all other divisions were battle-hardened Legionarios, Regulares, African mercenaries from Ifni and Western Sahara, as well as Carlist and Falangist militias.

Maestrazgo Army Corps The Maestrazgo Army Corps Cuerpo del Ejército del Maestrazgo was led by General Rafael García Valiño.Thomas, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. 2001. London. p.821 1st División de Navarra, led by Mohammed el Mizzian.Henry, Chris. (1999). The Ebro, 1938: Death Knell of the Republic. Osprey Publishing. p.18 74th División la Leona, led by Coronel Arias. 84th División. led by Coronel Galera. 13th División, led by Fernando Barron.

Battle Republican assault The Republican Army spent a week preparing to cross the Ebro. According to the historian Antony Beevor, the commandos of the XIV Corps slipped across the river in order to obtain information about the Nationalist positions, and the Republican troops rehearsed the crossing in ravines and rivers on the coast.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. pp. 350–351 Some key players, including Ramón Rufat, explained in detail the intelligence gathering and preparation process. The Nationalist intelligence assets passed back reports to the Nationalist High Command, detailing troop movements and the concentration of the International Brigades, as well as the presence of rafts and pontoon bridges on the other side of the river, but Franco thought that the Republican Army would not be ready to undertake an offensive across the Ebro.

For the crossing, the Republicans chose the bend of the Ebro River between Fayon and Benifallet, an area held by the 50th Division of the Nationalist Army.Jackson, Gabriel. (1965). The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931–1939. Princeton University Press. Princeton. p. 454 The Republican army started the crossing on the night of 24–25 July during a no moon period.Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p. 816 Republican commandos crossed the river, killed the Nationalist guards and fastened lines for the assault boats, then the first Republican troops crossed in ninety boats (each of which carried ten men). The remaining troops of the V and XV Corps crossed the next day, using three pontoon bridges and another 12. The surprise was total and Republican forces were initially successful. Nevertheless, a secondary assault near Amposta, carried out by the XIV International Brigade, failed after 18 hours of combat, and the XIV International Brigade retreated, after suffering huge losses.Preston, Paul. (2006). The Spanish Civil War. Reaction, Revolution & Revenge. Harper Perennial. London. p. 289

During the first day, Republican troops surrounded the troops of the Colonel Campos's 50th Division, taking 4,000 prisoners, and many other Nationalist soldiers deserted. By the evening, Tagueña had advanced three miles in the north and Lister twenty one in the center.Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p. 817 By 26 July, the Republican troops had occupied 800 square kilometres and reached the outskirts of Gandesa; nevertheless the Nationalists deployed Barron's 13th Division in the town and the Republican troops failed to occupy it.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. p. 352.

Then, Franco decided to send heavy reinforcements to the Ebro's front (eight divisions, more than 140 bombers and 100 fighters) and passed the order for the dams at Tremp and Camarasa to be opened. The flood water destroyed the pontoon bridges, although the Republican engineers managed to repair them within two days. Furthermore, the Condor Legion and the Aviazione Legionaria started to bomb and destroy the pontoon bridges each day, although the Republican engineers managed to repair them each night. Because of this, only 22 tanks and a handful of artillery managed to cross the Ebro River, and Republican troops began running low on supplies, ammunition and drinking water.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. pp. 352–353

Siege of Gandesa

The key target for the Republicans was the town of Gandesa, some 25 km west of the Ebro, a crossroads to Catalonia and the north–south roads running parallel to the Ebro. The terrain around the town was extremely hilly, being dominated by the Cavalls, Pandols and Fatarella mountain ranges whose hard and bold limestone rocks and scant forest cover provided little shelter against Francoist fire.

On 27 July, Modesto ordered an attack on Gandesa with T-26 tanks and on 30 July decided to concentrate his tanks and artillery around Gandesa and launched an infantry assault against the city. On 1 August, the XV International Brigade launched a fierce attack against Hill 481 in front of Gandesa, suffering huge casualties; nevertheless, the Republican assault had failed due to the Nationalist air and artillery superiority and Modesto ordered the Army of the Ebro to go on the defensive.Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Penguin Books. London. p. 354

Battle of attrition