Merkabah () or Merkavah mysticism (lit. Chariot mysticism) is a school of early Jewish mysticism (), centered on visions such as those found in Ezekiel 1 or in the hekhalot literature ("palaces" literature), concerning stories of ascents to the heavenly palaces and the Throne of God.
The main corpus of the Merkabah literature was composed in the period 200–700 CE, although later references to the Chariot tradition can also be found in the literature of the Hasidim of Ashkenaz in the Middle Ages. A major text in this tradition is the Maaseh Merkabah ().Jacob Neusner (2005). Neusner on Judaism: Literature, p. 74: "When Eleazar finished the Works of the Chariot, Yohanan stood and kissed him on his head and said, Blessed is the Lord, God of Abraham. Jacob who gave to Abraham a son wise and knowing how to expound the glory of our father in heaven."
Etymology The noun merkavah "thing to ride in, cart" is derived from a verb, , with the general meaning "to ride". The word "chariot" is found 44 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, most referring to normal chariots on earth. Although the concept of the Merkabah is associated with Ezekiel's vision, the word is not used in Ezekiel 1.
However, when left untranslated, in English the Hebrew term merkavah relates to the throne-chariot of God in prophetic visions. It is most closely associated with the vision in Ezekiel 1 of the four-wheeled vehicle driven by four hayyot "living creatures" with four wings; the angels have the faces of a man, lion, ox, and a large predatory bird. The last animal, the nešer, is often translated "eagle", but today it can also refer to the Eurasian griffon vulture.
Ezekiel's vision of the chariot
According to the verses in Ezekiel and its attendant commentaries, his vision consists of a chariot made of many heavenly beings driven by the "Likeness of a Man". The base structure of the chariot is composed of four beings. These beings are called the "living creatures" ( hayyot or khayyot). The bodies of the creatures are "like that of a human being", but each of them has four faces, corresponding to the four directions the chariot can go (East, South, North and West). The faces are that of a man, a lion, an ox (later changed to a cherub in Ezekiel ) and a vulture. Since there are four angels and each has four faces, there are a total of sixteen faces. Each of the hayyot angels also has four wings. Two of these wings spread across the length of the chariot and connect with the wings of the angel on the other side. This creates a sort of 'box' of wings that forms the perimeter of the chariot. With the remaining two wings, each angel covers its own body. Below, but not attached to, the feet of the hayyot angels are other angels that are shaped like wheels. These wheel angels, which are described as "a wheel inside of a wheel", are called "ophanim" אופנים (lit. wheels, cycles or ways). These wheels are not directly under the chariot but are nearby and along its perimeter. The angel with the face of the man is always on the east side and looks up at the "Likeness of a Man" that drives the chariot. The "Likeness of a Man" sits on a throne made of a substance like "sapphire".
The Bible later makes mention of a third type of angel found in the merkabah called "seraphim" (lit. "burning") angels. These angels appear like flashes of fire continuously ascending and descending. These seraphim angels power the movement of the chariot. In the hierarchy of these angels, hayyoth are the highest, that is, closest to God, followed by the ophanim, which are followed by the seraphim. The chariot is in a constant state of motion, and the energy behind this movement runs according to this hierarchy. The movement of the ophanim is controlled by the "Living creatures", or Hayyot, while the movement of the hayyot is controlled by the seraphim. The movement of all the angels of the chariot is controlled by the "Likeness of a Man" on the Throne.
Early Jewish merkabah mysticism
Mark Verman has distinguished four periods in early Jewish mysticism, developing from Isaiah's and Ezekiel's visions of the Throne/Chariot, to later extant merkabah mysticism texts:Verman, The Books of Contemplation, p. 8; summarised by Sanford L. Drob in Kabbalistic Metaphors: Jewish Mystical Themes in Ancient and Modern Thought, Jason Aronson (2000) section of chapter 1, pp. 4–8 800–500 BCE, mystical elements in Prophetic Judaism such as Ezekiel's chariot Beginning c. 530s BCE, especially 300–100 BCE, Apocalyptic literature mysticism Beginning c. 100 BCE, especially 1–130s CE, early Rabbinic merkabah mysticism referred to briefly in exoteric Rabbinic literature such as the Pardes ascent; also related to early Christian mysticism c. 1–200 CE, continuing till c. 1000 CE, merkabah mystical ascent accounts in the esoteric merkabah-Hekhalot literature
Rabbinic commentary
The earliest Rabbinic Merkabah commentaries were exegetical expositions of the prophetic visions of God in the heavens and the divine retinue of angels, hosts, and heavenly creatures surrounding God. The earliest evidence suggests that Merkabah homiletics did not give rise to ascent experiences—as one rabbinic sage states: "Many have expounded upon the merkabah without ever seeing it."Tosefta Megillah 3 :28.
One mention of the Merkabah in the Talmud notes the importance of the passage: "A great issue—the account of the Merkavah; a small issue—the discussions of Abaye and Rava [famous Talmudic sages]."See Idel, Moshe, , citing Babylonian Talmud, Sukkah 28a. The sages Yohanan ben Zakkai (d. c. 80 CE) and Rabbi Akiva (d. 135) were deeply involved in merkabah exegesis. Rabbi Akiva and his contemporary Ishmael ben Elisha are often the protagonists of later Merkabah ascent literature.
Prohibition against study
The Talmudic interdictions concerning merkabah speculation are numerous and widely held. Discussions concerning the merkabah were limited to only the most worthy sages, and admonitory legends about the dangers of overzealous speculation concerning the merkabah are preserved.
For example, the secret doctrines might not be publicly discussed: "Seek not out the things that are too hard for thee, neither search the things that are above thy strength. But what is commanded thee, think thereupon with reverence; for it is not needful for thee to see with thine eyes the things that are in secret" in Sirach (iii. 21–22). It must be studied only by exemplary scholars: "The Maaseh Bereishit must not be explained before two, nor Ma'aseh Merkabah before one, unless he be wise and understands it by himself," Hagigah ii. 1. Further commentary notes that the chapter-headings of Ma'aseh Merkabah may be taught, as was done by Hiyya bar Abba. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, Hagigah ii. 1, the teacher read the headings of the chapters, after which, subject to the approval of the teacher, the pupil read to the end of the chapter. However, Rabbi Zera said that even the chapter-headings might be communicated only to a person who was head of a school and was cautious in temperament.
According to Rabbi Ammi, the secret doctrine might be entrusted only to one who possessed the five qualities enumerated in (being experienced in any of five different professions requiring good judgement), and a certain age is, of course, necessary. When Yohanan ben Zakkai wished to initiate Eleazar ben Azariah in the Ma'aseh Merkabah, the latter answered, "I am not yet old enough." A boy who recognized the meaning of () was consumed by fire (Hagigah 13b), and the perils connected with the unauthorized discussion of these subjects are often described (Hagigah ii. 1; Shab. 80b).Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography:
Hamburger, R. B. T. ii., s.v. Geheimlehre; Zunz, G. V. 2d ed., v. 171–173.
Jewish development
Early apocalyptists associated with Synagogal Judaism and the secessionist lineage of priests engaged in visionary exegeses concerning the divine realm and creatures remarkably similar to the material.
A few of the Dead Sea Scrolls indicate that the Qumran community also engaged in Merkabah exegesis. Recently uncovered mystical texts also evidence a deep affinity with merkabah homilies.
The Merkabah homilies eventually consisted of detailed descriptions of multiple-layered heavens, often seven, often guarded by angels and encircled by flames and lightning. The highest heaven contains seven hekhalot "palaces", and in the innermost palace resides a supreme divine image seated on a throne, surrounded by terrifying hosts singing God's praise.
When these images were combined with an actual mystical experiential motif of individual ascent (paradoxically called "descent" in most texts, Yordei Merkabah, "descenders of the chariot", perhaps describing inward contemplation) and union is not precisely known.
Maaseh Merkabah
Maaseh Merkabah (Work of the Chariot) is the modern name given to a Hekhalot text, discovered by scholar Gershom Scholem.The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic and Mysticism, Geoffrey W. Dennis (2007) Ma'aseh Merkavah: “Working of the Chariot.” The modern name given to a Hekhalot text, discovered by scholar Gershom ... Ma'asei-Bereshit: “The Workings of Creation.” Starting in antiquity, Jewish disciples of the esoteric have engaged ... Maaseh Merkabah dates from late Hellenistic period, after the end of the Second Temple period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when the physical cult ceased to function. The idea of making a journey to the heavenly hekhal seems to be a kind of spiritualization of the pilgrimages to the earthly hekhal that were now no longer possible. It is a form of pre-Kabbalah Jewish mysticism that teaches both of the possibility of making a sublime journey to God and of the ability of man to draw down divine powers to earth; it seems to have been an esoteric movement that grew out of the priestly mysticism already evident in the Dead Sea Scrolls and some apocalyptic writings (see the studies by Rachel Elior).Elior, Rachel, Heikhalot Literature and Merkavah Tradition Ancient Jewish Mysticism and its Sources, Tel Aviv: Yediot Ahronot; Sifrei Hemed: 2004 (Hebrew).
Several movements in Jewish mysticism and, later, students of the Kabbalah have focused on these passages from Ezekiel, seeking underlying meaning and the secrets of Creation in what they argued was the metaphoric language of the verses.
Due to the concern of some Torah scholars that misunderstanding these passages as literal descriptions of God's image might lead to blasphemy or idolatry, there was great opposition to studying this topic without the proper initiation. Jewish biblical commentaries emphasize that the imagery of the merkabah is not meant to be taken literally; rather the chariot and its accompanying angels are analogies for the various ways that God reveals himself in this world.Maimonides, in his "Thirteen Principles of Faith", emphasizes that God is not limited to any particular form, as this prophecy might seem to imply. Hasidic philosophy and kabbalah discuss at length what each aspect of this vision represents in this world, and how the vision does not imply that God is made up of these forms.
Jews customarily read the Biblical passages concerning the merkabah in the synagogue every year on the holiday of Shavuot, and the merkabah is also referenced in several places in traditional Jewish liturgy.
Hekhalot literature