Sanxiang (Cantonese , in the language itself []) is a Min variety of Southern Min Chinese mostly spoken in Sanxiang in Zhongshan in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong, China. Despite its close proximity, Sanxiang is not very closely related to the surrounding dialects in the region, which belong to the Yue group, and thus forms a "dialect island" of Min speakers. It is one of three enclaves of Min in Zhongshan, the others being Longdu and Nanlang.
As Zhongshan Min (including Sanxiang) is surrounded by Cantonese, it gradually leads to the development of bilingualism among the people. As such, Cantonese influence can be found to some degrees in phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar. Vocabulary influence is the most significant, followed by phonetics, and the least influential being on the grammar.
Variants Not much differences are observed among villages in Sanxiang other than slight differences in pronunciation except for the divergent variant in Dabu (大布村). Most differences are observed in rimes and some vocabulary. For example, Zhangzhou final -ɛ as in the word 茶 is pronounced /tai/ in Sanxiang but /teə/ in Dabu. Same can be said for 坐 Sanxiang /tsai/; Dabu /tseə/. Any instances of -au in Sanxiang, becomes -ɔ in Dabu, including those cognate with Zhangzhou -o, such as in the words: 鹅学讲. Southern Min -ua remains in Sanxiang but becomes -oɔ after velar and labial initials or -iɔ elsewhere. 山 is /sua/ in Sanxiang but /siɔ/ in Dabu; likewise 歌 is /kua/ in Sanxiang but /koɔ/ in Dabu.
Phonology Initials Sanxiang dialect has 18 initials. Bilabial Alveolar Velar Glottal Nasal 梅孟目 女南宁 牙外严 Plosive/Affricate 巴步白 刀茶张 周展杂 歌家计 安鸭沃 破片仆 涂谈沉 千唱七 快欠曲 买棉灭 Fricative 费芳法 山身赎 海坑兄 认热日 Lateral 漏绿入
Rimes Sanxiang dialect has 69 rimes as observed in Wushi (乌石村).
Nucleus -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -øu- -ai- -au- -ɐi- -ɐu- -oi- -ou- -ui- -iu- ∅- Medial ∅- i- u- ∅- i- u- ∅- i- ∅- i- ∅- ∅- ∅- ∅- ∅- ∅- i- ∅- u- ∅- i- ∅- u- ∅- ∅- ∅- Coda -∅ 炒衫 倚兄 歌山 鞋买 河罗 步楚 比许 素鱼 巴千 左刀 消条 西桂 惠 沟愁 舅由 采帅 快卫 某侯 推算 秋唱 - 答纳 食笛 辣热 刮月 洛获 碧脚 接 白客 作学 尺石 - 南感 甜念 险欠 森审 壬 渐心 唔 - 单阵 弯幻 恨论 忍因 干汉 棉片 船云 - 冬梦 宏 承清 崩冰 江风 常龙 弓用 五 - 杂鸽 帖 竹十 集习 十涩 业入 - 察法 匹吉 灭节 活出 - 缚沃 或 则息 突北 各国 削鹿 熟育
Sanxiang dialect has 82 rimes as observed in Pinglan (平岚村), now split into modern day 平岚东村 and 平南村.
Nucleus -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -ai- -au- -ɐi- -ɐu- -oi- -ou- -ui- -iu- ∅- Medial ∅- i- u- ∅- i- u- ∅- i- u- ∅- i- u- ∅- u- ∅- ∅- ∅- u- ∅- i- ∅- i- u- ∅- i- ∅- i- u- ∅- ∅- ∅- Coda -∅ 饱 野 我 买 河 补 米 浮 来 怀 炮 数 祭 芮 惠 亩 休 彩 锐 皮 毛 雷 秋 - 拍 食 割 月 阁 约 篾 百 落 石 - 男 签 甜 森 壬 林 唔 - 班 弯 文 因 军 反 汉 尘 本 - 房 宏 凌 顶 更 风 肿 帮 往 五 - 纳 劫 贴 汁 集 涩 急 - 法 术 逸 猾 罚 笔 末 - 北 或 息 劈 适 木 育 莫 获
A few rimes have only one character, such as: iɐi 芮, ioi 锐, uaŋ 宏, uak 或, m̩ 唔, etc.
Tones Similar to Hokkien, Sanxiang dialect has 7 tones. Tones dark阴 light阳level平rising上departing去entering入level平rising上departing去entering入No.12345678Tone contour (33) (13) (213) (21) (55) - (11) (53)Example Hanzi歌贪刀单左底水讲算唱庆送杀结七竹茶蛇甜团 步话办漏热滑绝十SpecialExamples杜坐五雨事义外配舵柱倍舅武 蚁农
Special examples note:
Tone Sandhi Tone sandhi in Sanxiang applies in words with two or more characters. The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi: Function words Personal pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Negative adverbs Syllable before a vocal pause
Tones dark阴 light阳level平rising上departing去entering入level平rising上departing去entering入Original Tone (33) (13) (213) (21) (55) - (11) (53)Resulting Tone (11) (33) (21) - (33) (2)Example Words生姜、猪母、妖怪、花托、葾头、秦树、骰目炒惹、草纸、狗窦、手骨、马棚、好事、伙食称星、孝子、厝契、蒜汁、算盘、告示、放学插棋、结茧、竹扫、竹壳、栗萝、八万、竹窘齐心、人手、鱼刺、鱼骨、油麻、牛特、鱼目大声、饭碗、豆酱、面铃、大头、豆鼓、润月学生、石盾、白菜、目汁、目皮、墨现、自鹤
Phonological features Phonological features of the Sanxiang Dialect features several influence from nearby Yue languages and Hakka languages.
Compared to other Southern Min languages, the distinction of nasal vowels are lost in Sanxiang. Compare Hokkien with and with which are both // and // respectively in Sanxiang. Similarly, Leizhou dialect and Hainan dialect also lost nasal vowel distinction. As such, there are 7 rimes which resulted from the loss of nasal coda: -a (蓝担敢衫), -ai (前千还), -ia (听领命), -ua (山炭肝散), -i (钱变天扇), -iu (量梁想上), -ui (问村门砖) + Minimal pairs of nasalized rimes Rime -a -ua -ia -iu -i -ui -ai Word纱衫沙山野影受想比扁围黄家更SanxiangsasasuasuaiaiasiusiupipiuiuikaikaiLeizhousasasuasuaieosiusiopipieŋuiuikekeZhangzhousɛsãsuasuãiaiãsiusiɔ̃pipĩuiuĩkɛkɛ̃Xiamensasãsuasuãiaiãsiusiũpipĩuiŋ̍kekĩ
Some ancient voiced (浊) initial consonants in the rising (上) tone are now pronounced as either 阴平 tone or 上声 tone in Sanxiang. This pronunciation is very similar to that of Sanxiang Hakka. In the Zhongshan dialect, there are few examples of ancient voiced initial consonants in the rising tone that are now pronounced as 阴平 tone, but examples that are pronounced in the 上声 tone are very easy to find. In Zhangzhou, Fuzhou, and other Min dialects, this overall pronunciation pattern is generally absent, except for a few words with ancient secondary voiced initials (次浊) that are read as 上声 tone today. In most cases, it corresponds to the 阳去 tone. Word买咬坐近断杜舅柱社 Sanxiangbekat͡saikintuitukʰiɐut͡sʰisia 阴平 上声 SanxiangHakkamaiŋaut͡sʰokʰiuntʰontʰukʰiɛut͡sʰusia 阴平 去声 阴平 上声 Zhangzhoubekat͡sekintuĩtɔkutʰiausia 上声 阳去 Fuzhoumɛkɑsuɑikøyŋtuɑŋtoukiɛutʰiɛusiɑ 上声 阳去 Wenzhoumaŋuɔzodʑaŋdaŋdøydʑaudzɿzei 阳上
Min features Middle Chinese initial "非敷奉" is pronounced as either [p] or [pʰ] on Sanxiang's colloquial reading (白读). Rime set 非 敷 奉 Word分粪蜂肥妇浮缚SanxiangpunpunpʰaŋpuipupʰupakXiamenpunpunpʰaŋpuipupʰupakFuzhoupuoŋpuoŋpʰuŋpuoipoupʰupuoʔLongdupuɵnpunpʰoŋpuɵipupʰupɔk
Middle Chinese initial "知撤澄" is pronounced as either [t] or [tʰ] on Sanxiang's colloquial reading (白读), a trait uniquely shared by other Min languages. Rime set 知 撤 澄 Word猪张拆茶绸沉郑SanxiangtutiutʰiaʔtaitiutʰimtaiXiamentitiũtʰiaʔtaitiutʰimtĩFuzhoutytuoŋtʰiɑʔtatieutʰɛiŋtɑŋLongdutitiɔŋtʰ-tatiutʰɐmtɐŋ
Similar to other Southern Min languages, some Middle Chinese initial 日、疑、云(喻三) are pronounced as [h] on Sanxiang's colloquial reading (白读), a trait not shared by other Zhongshan Min (Longdu dialect and Nanlang dialect) which are part of Eastern Min. Rime set 日 疑 云 Word箬耳蚁鱼瓦云园 熊雨SanxianghioʔhihiahihiahunhuihimhɔZhangzhouhioʔhĩhiahihiahunhuĩhiɪŋhɔFuzhounuoʔŋɛiŋiɛŋyŋuɑhuŋhuoŋhyŋhuɔLongdunɵʔŋiŋiɛŋiŋaunfɔnhoŋfuɔ
Unique features One unique feature of Zhongshan Min, including Sanxiang dialect, is the presence of the consonant /f/ which is absent in much of the Min languages, suspected to be of Cantonese borrowing. The Middle Chinese 三十六字母 (36 initials) correspondence in the literary reading (文读) of Sanxiang dialect is as follows: "非敷奉" are mostly pronounced [h-], retaining characteristics of Min dialect, but a few are pronounced [f-]. "溪" are respectively pronounced [h-] or [f-]. "晓匣" are respectively pronounced [f].
+ Irregular occurrence of Sanxiang /f/ in comparison with Middle Chinese initial set Initial set 非 敷 奉 溪 晓 匣 Word肺法方芳费翻负凡庆去科灰徽忽户Sanxianghuifat̚foŋfoŋfɐifanhufanhɐŋhifofuifɐifɐt̚fuLongduhui/fuifat̚fɔŋfɔŋfɐifanhufanhɐŋkʰifɔhuifɐiuɐt̚fuHakkafuifat̚fɔŋfɔŋfuifanfufanhinhifofoifuifuXiamenhuihuat̚hɔŋhɔŋhuihuanhuhuankʰiɪŋkʰikʰohuehuihut̚hɔ
Another uniquely Sanxiang feature is the presence of the rime -ai and -au on some characters which corresponds to the Middle Chinese rimes 假 (二等) and 果 on the rime group (攝). Sanxiang -ai and -au usually corresponds to Zhangzhou Hokkien rimes -ɛ and -o. + Sanxiang open rime diphthongization Rime set 果 假 Word左婆坐巴茶家虾牙Sanxiangt͡saupaut͡saipaitaikaihaiŋaiZhangzhout͡sopot͡sepatɛkɛhɛɡɛCantoneset͡sɔːpʰɔːt͡sʰɔːpaːt͡sʰaːkaːhaːŋaː
This pattern with Zhangzhou dialect would continue on rimes with glottal stop -ʔ and on Zhangzhou's nasalized rimes. Word星郑白客作恶学Sanxiangt͡sʰaitaipaiʔkʰaiʔt͡sauʔauʔauʔZhangzhout͡sʰɛ̃tɛ̃pɛʔkʰɛʔt͡soʔoʔoʔ
Sometimes, some words can have irregular changes, such as []
Cantonese Influence Sanxiang's Cantonese influence can be seen in the occurrence of the vowel /ɐ/.
+ Minimal pairs of the vowel /a/ and /ɐ/ /a/ vs /ɐ/ -i -u -m -p -n -t Word拜闭高沟三心杂集慢敏札质Sanxiangpaipɐikaukɐusamsɐmt͡sap̚t͡sɐp̚manmɐnt͡sat̚t͡sɐt̚Cantonesepaːi̯pɐi̯kou̯kʰɐu̯saːmsɐmt͡saːp̚t͡saːp̚maːnmɐnt͡saːt̚t͡sɐt̚Xiamenpaipikaukausamsimt͡sap̚t͡sip̚banbint͡sat̚t͡sit̚
Sanxiang also has unique rimes øuŋ and øuk corresponding to Cantonese ʊŋ and ʊk or Taishanese ɵŋ and ɵk.
Rime -øuŋ -øuk Word钟弓穷用熟郁育Sanxiangt͡søuŋkøuŋkøuŋøuŋsøuk̚øuk̚øuk̚Taishaneset͡sɵŋkɵŋkʰɵŋjɵŋsɵk̚jɵk̚Cantoneset͡sʊŋkʊŋkʰʊŋjʊŋsʊk̚jʊk̚jʊk̚
Grammar Pronoun Personal pronouns Personal pronoun in Sanxiang dialect is similar to Teochew dialect. Plural forms of pronouns are achieved by suffixing -侬. Like other Southern Min languages, there is a distinction between an inclusive and exclusive we.
+ Personal Pronouns in Sanxiang Singular Plural 1st person ua¹³ Inclusive lan¹³⁻¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ Exclusive ua¹³⁻¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ 2nd person li¹³ li¹³⁻¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ 3rd person i³³ i³³ naŋ⁵⁵
Sanxiang has the reflexive pronoun 家己 /ka³³ ki¹¹/ similar to Southern Min.
Dual pronouns can be achieved by suffixing 两侬 /nɐu³³ naŋ⁵⁵/ onto singular pronouns similar to Hokkien, equivalent to 俩 in Mandarin. Example: 伊两侬 /i³³ nɐu³³ naŋ⁵⁵/ (他俩; they both).
Possessive pronouns The possessives are consistently expressed by suffixing /ɐi⁵⁵/ after a subject. Example: 阿李嘅大佬 (小李的哥哥; Little Li’s older brother), 侬嘅事干 (别人的事儿; someone else’s business).
Demonstrative pronouns Unlike other Southern Min languages, Sanxiang makes a three-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals with the addition of further distal. The basic determiners are /hɐi¹³/ "this" and /hu¹³/ "that", and for further distances /hu¹³⁻¹¹ tʰau⁵⁵/. They require at least a classifier and can be optionally preceded by a numeral.
+ Sanxiang Demonstratives Proximal Distal Further General Singular hɐi¹³ kɐi⁵⁵ hu¹³ kɐi⁵⁵ hu¹³ tʰau⁵⁵⁻²¹ ɔ³³ kɐi⁵⁵ Collective hɐi¹³ ai⁵⁵ hu¹³ ai⁵⁵ hu¹³ tʰau⁵⁵⁻²¹ it²¹⁻³³ kia¹³ Spatial hɐi¹³ ai⁵⁵ hu¹³ ai⁵⁵ hu¹³ tʰau⁵⁵ hɐi¹³ pʰan²¹³⁻³³ tɐi¹¹ hu¹³ pʰan²¹³⁻³³ tɐi¹¹ Temporal hɐi¹³ t͡sin¹¹⁻³³ si⁵⁵ hu¹³ t͡sin¹¹⁻³³ si⁵⁵
Interrogative pronouns Zhongshan Min retains the usage of "底", adding it before certain pronouns to express interrogative: + Sanxiang Interrogative Pronouns who / whom te¹³⁻¹¹ naŋ⁵⁵ which singular te¹³⁻¹¹ kɐi⁵⁵ collective te¹³⁻¹¹ ai⁵⁵ where te¹³ when what what (kind of) + noun how many; how much kui¹³
Numeral Across all Min languages, there are two pronunciations for 一 and 二 across dialects. When used for denoting quantities in Sanxiang, the pronunciation 一 /tit̚²¹/ and 两 /nɐu³³/ are used. The contrast between the two pronunciations (numeral vs quantity) can be seen in the following example:
Rime Numeral Quantity Word第一第二一斗两张Sanxiangtai³³ it̚²¹tai³³ zi¹¹tit̚²¹⁻³³ tau¹³nɐu³³ tiu³³Zhangzhoute²²⁻²¹ it̚³²te²²⁻²¹ d͡zi²²t͡sit̚¹²¹⁻²¹ tau⁵³nɔ̃²²⁻²¹ tiɔ̃⁴⁴Fuzhoutɛ²⁴²⁻⁵³ ɛiʔ²⁴tɛ²⁴²⁻⁵³ nˡɛi²⁴²suoʔ⁵⁻³³ (t-)lau³³l̃aŋ²⁴²⁻⁵⁵ (t-)nuoŋ⁵⁵
Generally, 一 /it̚²¹/ and 二 /zi¹¹/ are used for: Ordinal number: 第一, 第二 Counting tens or less: 二十四, 十一
While 一 /tit̚²¹/ and 两 /nɐu³³/ are used for: Denoting amount/ quantity: 一斗, 两张 Counting larger than tens: 两百, 一万
Aside from that, Sanxiang has additional pronunciations of 一 /iɐk̚²¹/ and 二 /ŋi¹¹/ as the surrounding Shiqi (石岐) or Xiafang (下方) Cantonese. Same can be said about the origin for the literary pronunciation (文读) of 四. + Sanxiang Numeral Numeral1一2二3三4四5五6六7七8八9九10十 Sanxiang文it̚²¹zi¹¹sam³³si¹¹ŋ̍³³lok̚⁵³t͡sʰat̚²¹pat̚²¹kau¹¹siɐp̚⁵³白iɐk̚²¹ŋi¹¹sa³³si²¹³ŋɔ¹¹lak̚⁵³t͡sʰit̚²¹paiʔ²¹kau¹³t͡siep̚⁵³ Zhangzhou文it̚³² d͡zi²²sam⁴⁴su²¹ŋɔ̃⁵³liɔk̚¹²¹ t͡sʰit̚³²pat̚³²kiu⁵³sip̚¹²¹白t͡sit̚¹²¹sã⁴⁴si²¹ɡɔ²²lak̚¹²¹peʔ³²kau⁵³t͡sap̚¹²¹ Fuzhou文ɛiʔ²⁴nˡɛi²⁴² saŋ⁵⁵søy²¹³ŋu³³ l̃øyʔ⁵ t͡sʰɛiʔ²⁴ paiʔ²⁴kieu³³ sɛiʔ⁵白suoʔ⁵nɑ²⁴²sɛi²¹³ŋou²⁴²kau³³ Approximate numbers are mostly expressed with 零 /leŋ⁵⁵/, such as: 十零个 (十几个; a dozen or so), 百零侬 (百来人; a hundred or so people), 三十零个猪 (三十多只猪; thirty or so pigs).
The word 一 /tit̚²¹/ can usually be omitted in the following cases: