The history of Tunisia under French rule began in 1881 with the establishment of the French protectorate and ended in 1956 with Tunisian independence. The French presence in Tunisia came five decades after their conquest and occupation of neighboring Algeria. Both of these lands had been associated with the Ottoman Empire for three centuries, yet each had long since attained political autonomy. Before the French arrived, the Bey of Tunisia had begun a process of modern reforms, but financial difficulties mounted, resulting in debt. A commission of European creditors then took over the finances. After the French conquest of Tunisia the French government assumed Tunisia's international obligations. Major developments and improvements were undertaken by the French in several areas, including transport and infrastructure, industry, the financial system, public health, administration, and education. Although these developments were welcome, nonetheless French businesses and citizens were clearly being favored over Tunisians. Their ancient national sense was early expressed in speech and in print; and then political organization occurred. The independence movement was already active before World War I, and continued to gain strength against mixed French opposition. Its ultimate aim was achieved in 1956.For geography and climate background, see History of Tunisia preview.For referral to authorities, see text following.
Beylical reform, debt
As the 19th century began, the Husaynid dynasty Bey remained hereditary rulers of the country. Since the early 18th century Tunisia had effectively been autonomous, although still 'officially' an Ottoman province. Commerce and trade with Europe increased dramatically following the Napoleonic Wars. Western merchants especially Italians arrived to establish businesses in the major cities. Italian farmers, tradesmen, and laborers also immigrated to Tunisia. Foreign influence grew with the rapid surge in contacts with Europe.In general, see History of Ottoman era Tunisia at the section "Era of modern reforms".
During the rule of Ahmad Bey (r.1837-1855) extensive modern reforms were initiated. Later, in 1861 Tunisia promulgated the first constitution in the Arab world. Yet the Tunisian drive toward modernizing the state and the economy met resistance. Reformers became frustrated by comfort-seeking insiders, political disorganization, regional discontent, and rural poverty. An 1864 revolt in the Sahil region was brutally put down. Later, after ineffective measures had failed, the leading reformer Khair al-Din (Khaïreddine) became chief minister 1873–1877, but he too eventually met defeat by wily conservative politicians.Kenneth J. Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (University of Cambridge 2004) at 10–36; Ahmad Bey at 12–17, Khaïreddine at 30–36, revolt at 29, 31.
European banks advanced funds to the Beylical government for modernizing projects, such as civil improvements, the military, public works, and development projects, but also they included money for the personal use of the Bey. The loans were frequently negotiated at unfavorable rates and terms. Repayment of the foreign debt eventually grew increasingly difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt. A Commission Financière Internationale (International Financial Commission) was thereafter formed, whose representatives were led by France; Italy and Britain were also representatives. The commission took control over the Tunisian economy.A. Guellouz, A. Masmoudi, M. Smida, A. Saadaoui, Histoire Générale de la Tunisie, Tome III. Les Temps Modernes (941–1247 A.H./1534-1881) (Tunis: Sud Editions 2010) at 409–411.Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (2004) at 31-32.Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980 (Princeton Univ. 1986) at 70 (bankruptcy), 85-86 (commission), 96-97, 98-104 (Bey's economic policy).
French regime
Establishment
Initially, Italy was the European country most interested in incorporating Tunisia into its sphere of influence. Italy's strong motivation derived from the substantial number of expatriate citizens already resident there, with corresponding business investment, due to its close geography. Yet in the emerging national conscience of the newly unified (1861) Italian state, the establishment of a directly ruled colony did not then attract high-priority interest for the political agenda.An Italian colonial program was then repeatedly rejected. Left wing (Italian: Sinistra storica) Prime Ministers Agostino Depretis and Benedetto Cairoli were known opponents of any military adventure, in what was known as the "Clean hands" politics following the Congress of Berlin (1878). Latter, however, under Francesco Crispi, Italy would begin to seek its own colonies. Cf., Giuliano Procacci, History of the Italian People (Paris 1968; London 1970, reprint Penguin 1973), pp. 351–352, 357–358.
France, whose possession of Algeria bordered Tunisia, and Britain, then possessing the tiny island of Malta lying off its coast, were also interested. Britain wanted to avoid a single power controlling both sides of the Strait of Sicily. During 1871–1878, France and Britain had been co-operating to foreclose Italian political influence. Yet more often these two countries were keen rivals. "For most of their tenure [both began in 1855], Richard Wood and Léon Roches, the consuls respectively of Britain and France, competed fiercely with each other to gain an economic or political edge in Tunisia."Kenneth J. Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (Cambridge University 2004), p. 36, quote, p. 17.
The Congress of Berlin, held in 1878, convened to discuss the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man" of Europe, following its decisive defeat by Russia, with a focus on its remaining Balkan possessions. At the Congress, an informal understanding among the British, Germans, and French was reached, assenting to France incorporating Tunisia, although the negotiations around this understanding were kept secret from the Italians at the time. The French Foreign Minister, William Waddington, discussed the matter extensively with Britain's Lord Salisbury, and Otto von Bismarck, while originally opposed, came to view Tunisia as an ideal distraction of the French away from continental Europe by the time of the Congress.Ling, Dwight L. “The French Invasion of Tunisia, 1881” The Historian 22.4 (August 1960), 396-399. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24436566 Italy was promised Tarabulus in what became Libya.Holt and Chilton, A History of Europe From 1862 to 1914 (New York: Macmillan 1918), pp. 207–223 (Congress of Berlin) at 220–221 (Tunisia). Germany, for one, favored such a result which would allow France some alternative to their loss of two provinces in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). Cf., French Protectorate of Tunisia#Congress of Berlin. Britain supported French influence in Tunisia in exchange for its own protectorate over Cyprus (recently 'purchased' from the Ottomans),Stanford J. Shaw & Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1977) at II: 190. and French cooperation regarding a nationalist revolt in Egypt.D. W. Brogan, The Development of Modern France. 1870–1939 (London: Hamish Hamilton 1940) at 224–227 (Tunisia); 228–231 (Egypt).The French earlier had introduced to Egypt an Arabic printing press, during their occupation of 1798-1799. P. J. Vatikiotis, The Modern History of Egypt (New York: Praeger 1969) at 40. In the meantime, however, an Italian company apparently bought the Tunis-Goletta-Marsa rail line; yet French strategy worked to circumvent this and other issues created by the sizeable colony of Tunisian Italians. Direct attempts by the French to negotiate their entry into Tunisia with the Bey failed. France waited, searching to find reasons to justify the timing of a pre-emptive strike, now actively contemplated. Italians called the strike the Schiaffo di Tunisi.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971), pp. 276–278.
In northwest Tunisia the Khroumir tribe episodically launched raids into the surrounding countryside. In Spring of 1881 they raided across the border into French Algeria. France responded by invading Tunisia, sending in an army of about 36,000. Their advance to Tunis was rapidly executed. The Bey was soon compelled to come to terms with the French conquest of the country, in the first of a series of treaties. The documents provided that the Bey continue as head of state, but with the French given effective control over a great deal of Tunisian governance, in the form of the Protectorat français en Tunisie.Kassab and Ounaïes, L'Époque Contemporaine. 1881–1956 (Tunis: Sud Editions 2010), pp. 9–17.Kenneth J. Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (Cambridge University 2004), pp. 10–12, 36–38.
With her own substantial interests in Tunisia, Italy protested but would not risk a confrontation with France. Hence Tunisia officially became a French protectorate on May 12, 1881, when the ruling Sadik Bey (1859–1882) signed at his palace the Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id). Later in 1883 his younger brother and successor 'Ali Bey signed the Conventions of La Marsa. Resistance by autonomous local forces in the south, encouraged by the Ottomans in Tarabulus, continued for half a year longer, with instability remaining for several years.Cooley, Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (New York 1965), pp. 193–196.Richard M. Brace, Morocco Algeria Tunisia (Prentice-Hall 1964), pp. 36–37.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971), pp. 278–282.Kassab and Ounaies, L'Epoque Contemporaine 1881-1956 (Tunis 2010) at 10-17 (Bardo and la Marsa), 17-33 (armed resistance).
Paul Cambon, the first Resident-Minister (after 1885 called the Resident-General) of the French Protectorate, arrived in early 1882. According to agreement he assumed the office of the Bey's foreign minister, while the general commanding French troops became the minister of war. Soon another Frenchman became director-general of finance.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 280. Sadiq Bey died within a few months. Cambon wanted to demonstrate the complete disestablishment of Ottoman claims to suzerainty in Tunisia. The Ottomans beforehand agreed to acquiesce. Accordingly, Cambon designed and orchestrated the accession ceremony of 'Ali Bey (1882–1902). Cambon personally accompanying him from his La Marsa residence to the Bardo Palace where Cambon invested him as the new Bey in the name of France.
The French progressively assumed more of the important administrative positions. By 1884 they directed or supervised the Tunisian administration of government bureaus dealing with finance, post, education, telegraph, public works and agriculture. After deciding to guarantee the Tunisian state debt (chiefly to European investors), the Protectorate then abolished the international finance commission. French settlements in the country were being actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 10,000 in 1891 to 46,000 in 1911, and then to a total of 144,000 in 1945.Kenneth L. Perkins, History of Modern Tunisia (Cambridge Univ. 2004), pp. 39–42 (French control, state debt).A. Kassab & A. Ounaïes, L'Époque Contemporaine 1881–1956 (Tunis: Sud Editions 2010), pp. 143–145 (European population in Tunisia).Nicola A. Ziadeh, Origin of Nationalism in Tunisia (Beirut: American Univ. of Beirut 1962), p. 33 (French population growth).
Economic advance