The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (; ), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Söğüt from before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa from 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.Stavrides 2001, p. 21

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives, due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the 13th century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.Kafadar 1995, p. 122. "That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it." Lowry 2003, p. 78. "Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that..." Lindner 1983, p. 10. "In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history." The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers, with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the proclamation of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"

Names The sultan was also referred to as the padishah (, ). In Ottoman usage the word "Padishah" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named.Strauss 2010, pp. 21–51. In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks, or simply the "Great Lord" (, ) especially in the 16th century.

Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities: Arabic: In some documents padishah was replaced by (, 'king') Bulgarian: In earlier periods Bulgarian people called him the (). The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used direct translations of sultan ( ) and padishah ( ) Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name (). The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of sultan ( ) and padishah ( ). Judaeo-Spanish: Especially in older documents, ('the king') was used. In addition some Ladino documents used sultan (in Hebrew characters: and ).

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles. He was theoretically responsible only to God and divine law (the Islamic şeriat, known in Arabic as sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate (Kut) was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" ( ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" ( Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).Findley 2005, p. 115 All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land. Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar ( qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23Stavrides 2001, p. 20 as well as the caliph of Islam. Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.Quataert 2005, p. 93 A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"

Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions" Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,Quataert 2005, p. 90 women of the imperial harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.

Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations" Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2021, the head of the Osmanoğlu family has been Harun Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.

List of sultans

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. Early Ottomans practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, there was often a time gap between a sultan's death date and the accession date of his successor.Quataert 2005, p. 91 In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority ( ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.Quataert 2005, p. 92 Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54 Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.

No. Sultan Portrait Reign Tughra Notes Coinage Rise of the Ottoman Empire 1 Osman I 1299 – c. 1324Finkel 2007, p. 33. Son of Ertuğrul BeyKafadar 1995, pp. 60, 122. and an unknown woman.Lowry 2003, p. 153. Reigned until his death. 2 Orhan c. 1324 – March 1362 Son of Osman I and Malhun Hatun (unclear). Reigned until his death. 3 Murad I March 1362 – 15 June 1389 Son of Orhan and Nilüfer Hatun. Reigned until his death. Killed on the battlefield at the Battle of Kosovo on June 15, 1389. — Savcı Bey 1373 Son of Murad I. Rebelled against his father alongside Andronikos IV Palaiologos. Blinded and perhaps executed by his father. 4 Bayezid I 15 June 1389 – 20 July 1402 Son of Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun. Captured on the battlefield at the Battle of Ankara against Timur. Died in captivity in Akşehir on 8 March 1403. Ottoman Interregnum — İsa Çelebi January – March/May 1403 Co-sultan of Anatolia After the Battle of Ankara, İsa Çelebi defeated Musa Çelebi and took the western Anatolian territories for approximately two years. Defeated by Mehmed Çelebi in the Battle of Ulubad in March or May 1403. Strangled in September 1403. — Süleyman Çelebi 20 July 1402 –17 February 1411Jorga 2009, p. 314. Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire, a short period after the Ottoman defeat at Ankara. Murdered on 17 February 1411. — Musa Çelebi 18 February 1411 –5 July 1413von Hammer, pp. 58–60. Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empireProf. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 pp 74–75 on 18 February 1411, just after the death of Süleyman Çelebi. Killed on 5 July 1413 by Mehmed Çelebi's forces in the battle of Çamurlu Derbent near Samokov in Bulgaria. — Mehmed Çelebi 1403 – 5 July 1413 Acquired the control of Eastern Anatolia as co-Sultan after the Battle of Ankara. Defeated İsa Çelebi in the battle of Ulubat in 1405. Became the sole ruler of Anatolia upon İsa's death in 1406. Acquired the title of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I Khan upon Musa's death. Sultanate resumed 5 Mehmed I 5 July 1413 – 26 May 1421 Son of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun. Reigned until his death. — Mustafa Çelebi January 1419 – May 1422 Sultan of Rumelia Son of Bayezid I Executed by Murad II 6 Murad II 25 June 1421 –August 1444 Son of Mehmed I and Emine Hatun. Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Mehmed II. 7 Mehmed II August 1444 –September 1446 First reign Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun. Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries. (6) Murad II September 1446 –3 February 1451 Second reign Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence.Kafadar 1995, p. xix Reigned until his death. Growth of the Ottoman Empire (7) Mehmed II 3 February 1451 –3 May 1481 Second reign Conquered Constantinople in 1453. Reigned until his death. 8 Bayezid II 19 May 1481 –25 April 1512 Son of Mehmed II and Gülbahar Hatun. Abdicated. Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512. — Cem Sultan 28 May – 20 June 1481 Son of Mehmed II Acquired the title Cem bin Mehmed Han.Turkish Language Association, (1960), Belleten, p. 467 (in Turkish) Died in exile 9 Selim I 25 April 1512 –21 September 1520 Conquered Mamluks in 1516–1517. First Ottoman Caliph. Son of Bayezid II and Gülbahar Hatun. Reigned until his death. 10 Suleiman I 30 September 1520 –6 September 1566 Son of Selim I and Hafsa Sultan. Died of natural causes in his tent during the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566. Transformation of the Ottoman Empire 11 Selim II 29 September 1566 –15 December 1574 Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan.