Indo-Pacific is a hypothetical language macrofamily proposed in 1971 by Joseph Greenberg and now believed to be spurious. It grouped together the Papuan languages of New Guinea and Melanesia with the languages of the Andaman Islands (or at least Great Andamanese) and, tentatively, the languages of Tasmania, both of which are remote from New Guinea. The valid cognates Greenberg found turned out to be reflexes of the less extensive Trans–New Guinea family. Recently the Kusunda language (and possibly other unclassificated languages), which is generally seen as a language isolate, is also included in the Indo-Pacific proposal. Greenberg did not include "Australian" in his original 1971 proposal.
Proposal The Indo-Pacific proposal, grouping the non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea with certain languages spoken on islands to the east and west of New Guinea, was first made by Greenberg in 1971. Greenberg's supporter Merritt Ruhlen considers Indo-Pacific an extremely diverse and ancient family, far older than Austronesian, which reflects a migration from southeast Asia that began only 6,000 years ago; he notes that New Guinea was inhabited by modern humans at least 40,000 years ago, and possibly 10,000 to 15,000 years earlier than that.Ruhlen, Merritt. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, 1994 Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza sees Indo-Pacific as a very heterogenous family of 700 languages and suggests that it may be more than 40,000 years old.Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca. Genes, Peoples, and Languages. University of California Press: Berkeley, 2001
Reception
Greenberg's proposal was based on rough estimation of lexical similarity and typological similarity and has not reached a stage where it can be confirmed by the standard comparative method, including the reconstruction of a protolanguage. The languages of Tasmania are extinct and so poorly attested that many historical linguists regard them as unclassifiable. Roger Blench has dismissed the Indo-Pacific proposal as improbable, observing that while it "purported to be a purely linguistic exercise...it conveniently swept up all the languages of the crinklyhaired populations in the region that were not clearly Austronesian." He writes that despite decades of further research into Papuan languages and prehistory, Indo-Pacific is still not accepted by specialists and that it "only exists in the eye of the believer." George van Driem (2001)Languages of the Himalayas, vol. 1, pp 139–141 responds as follows:
Since Greenberg's work, the languages of New Guinea have been intensively studied by Stephen Wurm. Wurm's Trans–New Guinea languages family includes about 70 percent of the languages Greenberg included in Indo-Pacific, though the internal classification is entirely different. Wurm states that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese, West Papuan (which is not part of Trans–New Guinea), and certain languages of Timor "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity [...] in a number of instances", but considers this to be due to a linguistic substratum rather than a direct relationship.Wurm, S.A. (1977). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
Pawley (2008) is the only thorough review of the proposal. He found that all branches of Indo-Pacific except Tasmanian and Andamanese include languages from Trans–New Guinea, and that this explains the more reasonable cognates that Greenberg proposed, but because these Trans–New Guinea languages are mixed in with languages from other families in those branches, cognates linking the branches do not provide support for Greenberg's proposal that all Papuan languages are related.Andrew Pawley, 2008. An assessment of Greenberg's Indo-Pacific hypothesis (draft)
Subdivision
Tasmanian Great Andamanese: Southern: Chariar, Puchikwar, Kede, Kol, Juwoi; Northern: Beada, Bogijiab, Bale, Biada Nuclear Central Kapauku–Baliem Kapauku (Ekari, Ekagi), Moni, Jabi, Simori, Wolani [= TNG Paniai Lakes family] Dem [= TNG Dem] Uhunduni, Enggipilu [= TNG Uhunduni] Dani (Ndani) [→ Dani] Northern Ngalik, Oeringoep, Sawuri-Hablifuri, Southern Ngalik, Peseghem [= TNG Dani + Isirawa (probably Kwerba)] Highland Wurm & Laycock's Gadsup–Auyana–Awa–Tairoa + Erima, Tsinyaji [= TNG Kainantu + Madang] Wurm & Laycock's Gende–Siane–Gahuku–Kamano–Fore [= TNG Goroka] Wurm & Laycock's Hagen–Wahgi–Jimi–Chumbu [= Chimbu–Wahgi] Wurm & Laycock's Enga–Huli–Pole–Wiru [= Engan + Wiru (probably Teberan–Pawaian)] Karam (Aförö) [= Madang] Kutubu, Fasu [= Kutubuan] McElhanon's Huon languages + Matap, Jupna Valley, Kandomin, Wantoat [= TNG Finisterre–Huon] Northern Murik: Murik, Angoram (Tjimundo), Tshamberi, Kambot [= Nor–Pondo + Kambot] Tami: Sko (Seko), Sangke, Arso, Njao, Wembi, Skofro, Ampas, Waris, Vanimo, Kilmeri, Amanab [= non-TNG Border + Skou families + unclassified Molof (Cowan's proposal)] Arapeshan: Arapesh, Kombio, Mountain Arapesh, Torricelli, Bambita, Wam, Yambes, Kavu, Valman [= non-TNG Torricelli family] Ndu–Kwoma: Mayo, Kwoma, Wongamusin, Iwam + Abau, Laycock's Ndu + "Tombenam", "Malu" [= non-TNG Sepik family] Sentani: Sentani, Nafri, Tanahmerah, Nimboran, Gresik, Kemtuk, Kuangsu, Waibron Bano-Demenggong, Demta, Mekei, Boven Tor, Kwesten, Mawes, Kaure, Sause [= non-TNG Sentani + Nimboran + Tor–Kwerba + (possibly TNG) Kaure families] Monumbo: Monumbo, Lilau, Bosngun, Nubia, Makarob, Igom, Gamai, Watam, Tanggum, Murusapa, Anaberg, Atemble, Gapun [= non-TNG Monumbo (branch of Torricelli) + Ramu & Gapun families] Unclassified: Siaute (Olo, Torricelli); Nori (Skou); Apris (Southern Adelbert) Southern (Kiwaiic) Peremka, Bangu, Wandatokwe, Jiminakana, Nausaku, Kebanagara, Mani [= non-TNG Tonda family + TNG Suki] Parb, Sanana, Dungerwab, Dorro, Dapo, Nombuio, Noraia, Potaia, Tunjuamu, Nenium (Wakamara), Karigari, Moi-e [= Kunja (Tonda family) + related Nambu + Mekwei (Nimboran family), none TNG] Bugi, Dabu, Dibolug, Kibuli, Ngamai-iki (Tupadidi), Mbayaka (Jindabira), Agöb [= non-TNG Pahoturi family] Jei, Toro, Ngowugar, Kanum, Moraori, Komelom (Mombum), Koneraw, Kimaghama, Riantana, Keladdar, Teri-Kawalsch, Ndom, Jab (Jelmek), Makleu [= non-TNG Morehead & Bulaka River families + TNG Mombum, Kolopom, & Morori families] Kiwai, Ipikoi, Hibaradai, Hiwi, Urama, Iwainu, Goaribari, Kerewa, Turama,Sidney H. Ray. 1923. The Languages of the Western Division of Papua. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 53. 332-360. Era River, Mawata, Domori, Wabuda, Sisiame, Pirupiru, Dibiri, Karami, Eme-eme (Pepeha), Mahigi, Tureture, Tapapi (Tapari), Buniki [= TNG Inland Gulf + possibly TNG Kiwaian + non-TNG Waia] Barika [probably Barikewa],Johnston, H. L. C. 1923. Appendix IX: Vocabulary Kikori Station, Delta Division: Tribe, Barika, Name of village, Asanu. Commonwealth of Australia. Papua: Annual Report for the Year 1921-1922. 166-166. Dugeme, Karima, Foraba, Ro (Keai, Worugi), Sesa, Tumu (Dumu, Kibiri) [= TNG Turama–Kikorian family + possibly TNG Folopa] Kunini, Masingara, Oriomo, Jibu, Miriam, Gijara [= non-TNG Eastern Trans-Fly family] Southwestern (Marind–Ok) Awju: Awju Sjiagha, Awju Jenimu (Oser), Awju Pisa [= TNG Awyu–Dumut family] Kukukuku: Kukukuku, Ashavi, Madinava [= TNG Angan] Tirio: Tirio, Tagota, Pisirami, Arama, Anima [= TNG Tirio family] Ok [= TNG Ok + Awin–Pa + Awyu–Dumut families] Digul, Aran, Niinati, Metomka, Lower Muiu, Muju, Kandam, Iongom, Upper Tedi, Awin, Eastern Tedi, Western Donaldson, Upper Fly, Upper Muju, Marapka Telefol, Unkia, "Plain Country" [= Awin] Mandobo, Dumut, Kaeti, Wambon Marind [= TNG Marind + perhaps non-TNG Bulaka River families] Marind (Tugeri, incl. Gawir & Boven Mbian) Jaqai, Sohur Boazi, Dea, Konmak (village Y), Lake Murray, Jabga, Babwa (village Z), Gabgab, Biak (village X) West Western Yava (Mantembu & Saweroe) [= non-TNG, possible isolate] Kapaur (Iha), Baham (Patimuni), Karas [= TNG West Bomberai family] Ajamaru, Asli-Sidi, Maibrat, Aitinjo [= non-TNG Mai Brat family] Madik, Karon, Waipu, Moi, Seget, Kalabra, Moraid, Tehit, Waliem [= non-TNG Bird's Head family] Meninggo (Meax), Mansibaber, Manikion, Mantion, Amberbaken, Faranjao, Mairasi, Etna Bay, Mogetemin [misidentified], Konda, Jahadian, Puragi, Kampong-Baru, Solowat, Itigo, Bira, Najarago, Tarof, Barau, Arandai, Mor[= non-TNG East Bird's Head + Amberbaken + Mairasi families + Maibrat (spurious) + TNG South Bird's Head + Mor families] North Halmahera: Loda, Tobelo, Tabaru, Isam, Pagu, Tololiku, Wai (Waioli), Sau, Modole, Galela, Ternate, Tidore[= non-TNG North Halmahera family] Timor–Alor: Bunak, Abui, Makasai, Oirata[= TNG Timorese languages] Eastern Afoa: Afoa, Tauata, Goilala, Ambo, Deba [= Goilalan family] Kovio: Kovio, Kuepa, Oru-Lopiko, Kunimaipa, Sini, Biaru, Goiefu [= Goilalan family] Fuyuge: Fuyuge (Mafulu), Kambesi (Tauada), Sikube (Kambana), Korona, Onunge, Agita, Vovoi, Gomali [= Goilalan family] Koita: Biagi, Uabari, Iarumi, Karukaru, Mogoni, Agi, Isurara [typo for Isurava], Suku (Amaseba), Minjori, Kagi, Favele, Wowonga, Kokila, Eikiri, Koiari, Uberi, Koita, Iworo, Maiari, Gosisi (Tobiri), Itu, Hagari, Neneba, Barai (Managalaski), Seramina, Suambe [= NumbaTerence Hays, New Guinea Bibliography'], Wamai, Nigubaiba, Kotoi [= Koiarian + Manubaran families] Mailu: Mailu (Magi), Domara, Nemea, Dom (Domu), Merani, Morawa, Magori, Binahari, Monomor, Keveri, Moikoidi, Bauwaki, Kororo, Neme, Boli, Doriaidi, Buari, Okaudi, Bori, Saroa, Yabura, Avini, Lauwa, O'oku, Lauuna, Gebi, Orai-iu [= Mailuan + Manubaran + Yareban families, maybe Baruga, and crypto-Austronesian Magori & Keapara] Elema: Elema (Haira), Kairi-Kaura, Uaripi, Toaripi (Motumotu), Milareipi, Orokolo [= Eleman family] Dimuga: Dimuga (Nawp), Tevi, Kanamara, Gwoiden, Makiara [= Dagan family] Binandere: Binandere, Mambare [ambiguous], Musa River, Aiga, Yoda [Yǒda/Koriri, geographically Hunjara], Berepo [presumably Binandere], Amara [presumably Binandere], Adaua [possibly Baruga], Yema-Yarawa, Mawai, Yega, Tain-Daware, Jegasa-Sarau, Jauwa (Dobodura), Hunjara, Tsia, Giumu, Tahari (incl. Aru & Duvera dialects), Maiheari, Upper Musa, Bargua, Totore [= Binanderean family + Akoye] Mulaha: Mulaha (Iaibu), Manukolu (Lakume), Garia, Kwale [= Kwalean family] Namau (Maipua) [an isolate, perhaps Eleman] Northeast (Madang): Langtub, Panim, Mis, Bongu, Gorendu, Bogadjim, Sungumana (Sungum), Wuong, Wenke, Uom, Jimjam [geographically Anjam], Burumana, Koliku, Kaliko, Male, Damun, Shongu, Banara (Moando), Tombenam (also in Ndu), Dagoi, Bonaputa-Mapu, Bunubun, Ulingan, Vanembere, Bunu (Saker), Rempin (A'e), Englam, Em, Ate, Kemba, Bawaipa, Misdao, Maragum, Nupanob (Botelkude), Matepi[= Madang family] Pacific Bougainville Uasi [isolate] KKRE: Rotokas, Konua, Eivo, Keriaka [= North Bougainville family] NNSB: Buin, NKK (Nasioi, Koianu, Koromira), STB (Telei, Siwai, Baitsi) [= South Bougainville family] New Britain Sulka [unclassified] Idne [AN] New Ireland: Letatan–Limalua, Panaras [isolate] Baining Taulil–Butam [= Baining family] Central Melanesian Central Solomons: Bilua, Baniata, Laumbe, Savo [= Central Solomons family] Santa Cruz: Reef, Ndeni (Noole, Banua, Nea, Nabalue) [= AN]
The following were left unclassified: [various languages suspected to be in Northern]: Senagi & Komberatoro; Busa; Urim; Kwanga (Kwanga); Yuri; Fas; Amto[= Senagi, Torricelli, Sepik, Pauwasi, Fas, Amto–Musan, and Busa families] Arare [possibly Western] [= TNG Kayagar] Kamoro [possibly Western]: Kajakaja, Asmat, Mimika, Asienara, Nagramandu, Sempan, Kamoro, Iria, Angandi[= TNG Asmat–Kamoro family] Tori [possibly Western]: "South River" (Südfluss) [likely Duvle], Tori, Pauwi II, Tori Aikwakai, Sidjuai, Pauwi I, Borumessu[= Lakes Plain family + Yoke + Burmeso] Kauwerawet: Kauwerawet, Koassa [= Kwerba family]