The optical properties of all liquid and solid materials change as a function of the wavelength of light used to measure them. This change as a function of wavelength is called the dispersion of the optical properties. The graph created by plotting the optical property of interest by the wavelength at which it is measured is called a dispersion curve.
The dispersion staining is an analytical technique used in light microscopy that takes advantage of the differences in the dispersion curve of the refractive index of an unknown material relative to a standard material with a known dispersion curve to identify or characterize that unknown material. These differences become manifest as a color when the two dispersion curves intersect for some visible wavelength. This is an optical staining technique and requires no stains or dyes to produce the color. Its primary use today is in the confirmation of the presence of asbestos in construction materials US-EPA Bulk Asbestos Test Method 600/R-93/116 page 16 US-NIOSH Bulk Asbestos Test Method 9002, pages 4 and 5 US-OSHA Bulk Asbestos Test Method D-191, Section 4.6 but it has many other applications.Kohlbeck, J.A. and W.T. Bolleter, “Microscopic determination of the degree of nitration of nitrocellulose with dispersion staining”, JOURNAL OF APPLIED POLYMER SCIENCE, vol 12, no.1, pp. 131-135, 1968Su, Shu-Chun, “Dispersion Staining - A versatile complement to Becke line method for refractive index determination”, GEOCHIMICA ET COSMOCHEMICA ACTA SUPPLEMENT, vol. 69, Issue 10, Supplement 1, Goldschmidt Conference Abstracts 2005., p.A727, 2005 US-FBI Method for Characterizing Trace Glass Evidence Characterizing the chemical composition of the mineral olivineCrutcher, E. R., “Optical Microscopy: An Important Tool for Particulate Receptor Source Apportionment”, PROCEEDINGS OF THE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ASSOCIATION, page 272, 1981. This paper includes dispersion staining as part of the body of methods used to identify the sources of air pollution in urban environments.Crutcher, E. R., “The Role of Light Microscopy in Aerospace Analytical Laboratories”, PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH SPACE SIMULATION SYMPOSIUM, 1977. This paper includes dispersion staining as part of the body of methods used to identify the sources of contamination in aerospace or micro-electronic clean rooms.
Types
There are five basic optical configurations of the microscope used for dispersion staining. Each configuration has its advantages and disadvantages. The first two of these, Becke` line dispersion staining and oblique dispersion staining, were first reported in the United States by F. E. Wright in 1911 based on work done by O. Maschke in Germany during the 1870s.Hoidale, “The color identification of transparent crystalline particles with an optical microscope: a literature survey of dispersion staining”, G. B., U.S. ARMY MICROFICHE, AD 603 019, p. 1, 1964 The five dispersion staining configurations are:
Colored Becke` Line Dispersion StainingWright, F. E., The methods of petrographic-microscopic research”, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 158, pp. 92-98, 1911 (Maschke, 1872; Wright, 1911) Oblique Illumination Dispersion Staining (Wright, 1911) Darkfield Dispersion Staining Crossmon, Germain C., “Microscopical Distinction of Corundum among its natural and artificial associates: employing the Christiansen Effect by transmitted, dark-field illumination”, Analytical Chemistry, vol. 20, no. 10, pp.976-977, Oct. 1948 (Crossmon, 1948) Phase Contrast Dispersion Staining Crossmon, Germain C., “ Dispersion Staining with phase contrast microscopy accessories: the microscopic identification of quartz”, Science, vol 110, p. 237, 1949 (Crossmon, 1949) Objective Stop Dispersion StainingCherkasov, Yu. A., “Application of ‘Focal Screening’ to Measurements of Indices of Refraction by the Immersion Method”, Trans. by Ivan Mittin, INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL REVIEW, vol. 2, pp. 218-235, 1960. (Cherkasov, 1958)
All of these configurations have the same requirements for the preparation of the sample to be examined. First, the substance of interest must be in intimate contact with the known reference material. In other words, the clean solid must be mounted in a reference liquid, one mineral phase must be in intimate contact with the reference mineral phase, or the homogenous liquid must contain the reference solid. Most applications involve a solid mounted in a reference liquid (referred to as the mounting medium). Second, dispersion colors will only be present if the two materials have the same refractive index for some wavelength in the visible spectrum (referred to as λo) and they have very different dispersions curves for the refractive index. Finally, the sample must be properly mounted under a coverslip to minimize any other optical effect that could complicate the interpretation of the color seen. Once these criteria are met the sample is ready to be examined.
The starting configuration of the microscope for all of these methods is properly adjusted Köhler illumination. Some additional adjustments are required for each of the methods.
Becke' line dispersion staining
The Becke' Line method takes advantage of the fact that particles behave basically like lenses because they tend to be thinner at the edges than they are at the center. If the particle has a higher refractive index than the liquid surrounding it then it behaves as a convex lens and focuses a parallel beam of light on the side opposite the source of the light. Looking through the microscope this is seen as a bright ring of light, the Becke` Line, moving in from the edge as the particle is dropped out of focus by increasing the distance between the stage of the microscope and the objective. If the stage is moved closer to the objective then the particle behaves like a magnifying glass and the image of the Becke` Line is magnified and it appears outside the particle.
A requirement for this method is that the incoming beam of light is as parallel as possible. This requires the closing down of the sub-stage condenser iris. Closing the sub-stage condenser iris decreases the resolution of the particle and increases the depth of field over which other objects may interfere with the effect seen. For large particles this is not a significant limitation but for small particles it is a problem.
When the conditions for dispersion staining are met (the particle is mounted in a liquid with a matching refractive index in the visible range of wavelengths but with a very different refractive index) then the particle has a high refractive index in the red part of the spectrum and a lower refractive index in the blue. This is because liquids tend to have a steeper dispersion curve than colorless solids. As a result, when the particle is dropped out of focus the red wavelengths are focused inward. For the blue wavelengths the particle behaves like a concave lens and the blue Becke` Line moves out into the liquid.
The color of these two bands of light will vary depending on where the particle and liquid match in refractive index, the location of λo. If the match is near the blue end of the spectrum then the Becke' Line moving into the particle will contain nearly all of the visible wavelengths except blue and will appear as a pale yellow. The Becke` Line moving out will appear a very dark blue. If the match is near the red end of the spectrum then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will appear dark red and the Becke` Line moving out will appear pale blue. If the λo is near the middle of the visible wavelengths then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will be orange and the Becke` Line moving out will be sky blue. The colors seen (see Chart 1) can be used to very precisely determine the refractive index of the unknown or confirm the identity of the unknown, as in the case of asbestos identification. Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at http://microlabgallery.com/gallery-dsbecke.aspx. The presence of two colors helps to bracket the wavelength at which the refractive index matches for the two materials.
The Becke' Line method of dispersion staining is primarily used as an exploratory technique. As a particle field is scanned and the fine focus is constantly adjusted and flash of color around or in a particle is noted and one of the other methods can be used to sharpen the sensitivity in determining the matching wavelength. For large particles (greater than 25 micrometers in diameter) the colored Becke` Lines may be sufficiently distinct to determine the lo with the required accuracy. For very large particles (greater than 100 micrometers) this may be the best method because it is least sensitive to other types of optical interferences.
Oblique illumination dispersion staining
Oblique illumination dispersion staining is the result of refraction and the convex shape of most particles. With oblique illumination the beam of light illuminating the sample is directed at an oblique angle through the sample. This enhances the resolution of structural details in the particle that are oriented at right angles to the incident beam of light while sacrificing some of the resolution of features parallel to the direction of the beam. Because of this orientation of the beam the relative refractive index of the particle and the mounting liquid becomes apparent. The wavelengths for which the liquid has the higher refractive index are refracted into the front lens of the objective from the side of the particle nearest the side from which the light is coming. If the particle has a higher refractive index for all visible wavelengths then this side of the particle is dark. The side farthest from the source of the light shows all the wavelengths for which the particle has the higher refractive index. These effects are seen with the particle in sharp focus. This is a significant advantage over the Becke` line method because the particle doesn't have to be defocus to see the colors and generally the colors are more distinct than are the Becke` line dispersion colors. The colors seen with this type of dispersion staining are about the same as those with the Becke` Line method shown in Chart 1. Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at microlabgallery.com site for Becke` Line Dispersion Staining. The presence of two colors helps to bracket the wavelength at which the refractive index matches for the two materials.
Darkfield illumination dispersion staining
Darkfield illumination dispersion staining is the result of the image of the particle being formed only by the light that is refracted while all the direct light impinging on the specimen is oriented at such an angle that it misses the front lens of the objective. The result is that the background is black. All of the features of objects in the field of view that don't match the refractive index of the mounting medium appear as bright white. When a particle is mounted in a liquid that matches its refractive index somewhere in the visible wavelengths then those wavelengths are not refracted by the particle and are not collected by the objective. The image of the object is formed by all of the wavelengths that remain. These wavelengths combine to produce a single color that can be used to indicate which band of wavelengths are missing (see Chart 2). Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at the microlabgallery.com site for Darkfield Dispersion Staining. This method is more difficult to interpret due to the single color rather than two bracketing colors but is relatively accurate near the center of the visible range.
Phase contrast dispersion staining