The Kamula–Elevala languages, also called the Kamula–Elevala River languages, are a small family of Papuan languages spoken in northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea, in the region of the Elevala River. The family has three languages: Kamula, and the more closely related Aekyom (Awin) and Pa (Pare), which together make up the Awin–Pa, or Elevala, subgroup. They had about 28,700 speakers in 2000.

The link between Kamula and the Awin–Pa languages was established by Edgar Suter and Timothy Usher (2017), who reconstructed Proto-Kamula–Elevala. Within the Trans–New Guinea family, Kamula–Elevala is placed in the Awyu–Ok branch.

Languages There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula. Kamula Awin–Pa (Elevala River) Aekyowm (Awin) Pare (Pa)

A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows. Kamula–Elevala family Kamula [1,100 speakers in 2000] Elevala (= Awin–Pare) family Pa (= Pare, Ba, Debepare) [6,500 speakers in 2000] Aekyom (= Awin, Akium) [21,100 speakers in 2000] Northeastern (= Aekyom–Skai) North Central Southeastern (= Aekyom–Pare) Western

Classification Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher. Timothy Usher's New Guinea World places the family within the Awyu–Ok branch of Trans–New Guinea.

Reconstruction

Phonology Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:

|+ Proto-Kamula–Elevala consonants ! colspan="2" | !Bilabial !Alveolar !Palatal !Velar |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Nasal

|- align="center" ! rowspan="2" |Plosive !voiceless | * (or *) || * || || * |- align="center" !voiced | * (or *) || * || || * |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Fricative

|- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Semivowel

+ Proto-Kamula–Elevala vowelsFrontCentralBackClose**Close-mid**Open-mid*Open**

There is also the diphthong *.

Pronouns Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:

|+ Awin–Pa pronouns ! !!sg!!du!!pl |- !1 |*nɔ||*ni, *ki|| |- !2 |*go||*gi|| |- !3 |*jɔ|| ||

In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.

Vocabulary Some Proto-Kamula–Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:

{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Proto-Kamula–Elevala basic vocabulary (Usher) ! gloss !! Proto-Kamula–Elevala |- | head || *ke̝ba |- | ear || *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] |- | eye || *kinɔ |- | nose || *kine̝ |- | tusk/tooth || *bate̝ |- | tongue/flame || *taⁱ |- | knee/leg || *tama |- | bone || *ke̝dɔ |- | louse || *awV |- | dog || *ti |- | pig || *m₂aⁱnæ |- | bird || *te̝ja |- | egg/fruit/seed || *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] |- | tree || *je̝ |- | man || *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] |- | sun/day || *gani |- | stone || *ike̝ |- | name || *pi |- | eat/drink || *de̝- |- | one || *tV[n/d]o̝

Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula–Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):

{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Proto-Kamula–Elevala reconstructions (Suter & Usher) ! gloss !! Proto-Kamula–Elevala |- | house || *aja |- | mushroom || *ap(ɔ,o) |- | hear || *dade- |- | where? || *dai |- | sago || *daja |- | eat, drink || *de- |- | burn, cook || *du- |- | middle || *dunu |- | brother || *ei |- | sun, day || *gani |- | belly, bowels || *gene |- | leech || *gimada |- | hold || *hamV- |- | upright || *hane |- | name || *hi |- | light (in weight) || *hodoka |- | stand, stay || *hV- |- | sago thatch || *jeme |- | hit || *jV- |- | bone || *kedɔ |- | man || *kopo |- | now, today || *kwa- |- | thigh || *madina |- | shoulder || *makæ |- | know || *maN(æ,a)- |- | teeth, mouth || *mat(e,i) |- | kindle || *mi- |- | son, child || *mi |- | body || *mot(e,i) |- | joint || *mu |- | tusk || *patæ |- | skin disease || *peseni |- | die || *po- |- | tie, wrap || *podi |- | pierce, burst || *poko- |- | heart, pity || *pɔdɔw(e,a) |- | be soft || *pɔpɔtæ- |- | close eyes || *pudi- |- | sit || *pV- |- | speech || *sa |- | rafter || *saka |- | paddle || *sode |- | tongue || *tai |- | afternoon || *tamide |- | make, do || *ti- |- | embers || *tine |- | bow (for arrows) || *tɔ |- | upstream || *t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o) |- | thorn || *tu |- | banana || *tuma |- | go || *tV- |- | one || *tVdo |- | illicit || *u |- | scar || *ud(e,i) |- | urine || *ute |- | grub || *wæja |- | left (hand) || *weke

Proto-Elevala Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):

{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Proto-Elevala reconstructions ! gloss !! Proto-Elevala |- | hand, arm || *a |- | lie down || *æ- |- | sand || *daNi |- | give || *dæ- |- | flea || *dideme |- | meat || *dinæ |- | testicles || *dipɔ |- | crocodile || *dope |- | sap, juice || *dɔdæ |- | fingernail || *d(ɔ,a)kæ |- | see || *dV- |- | sugarcane || *ga |- | beak || *ga |- | sing || *gi- |- | gums || *gine |- | younger brother || *gɔmɔde |- | cut || *gu |- | stick || *gum(ɔ,a) |- | count || *hiakV- |- | breath || *hine |- | do, make || *hɔmV- |- | carry on head || *i- |- | stone || *ike |- | song || *jɔkæ |- | set on fire || *kamV- |- | leg || *kate |- | beetle || *kiame |- | thunder || *kima(ti) |- | nose || *kine |- | face || *kiNɔ-namæ58 |- | white || *kɔnV-kaina59 |- | coconut || *kɔpɔkæ |- | pig || *mainæ |- | head || *mini |- | below || *moka |- | fish || *mone |- | stem || *moNæ |- | what? || *na |- | cane mail shirt || *napo |- | charcoal || *o |- | drum || *pi |- | heavy || *piena |- | buttocks || *po |- | smell || *pɔmæ |- | bride price || *puNe |- | goanna || *sɔNɔmæ |- | yesterday || *te |- | sago thatch || *temæ |- | rattan || *tike |- | ground, earth || *tɔ |- | wild || *tɔna

Vocabulary comparison The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970), Shaw (1973), and Shaw (1986), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.

The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. kɔ, kro for 'bone') or not (e.g. mɔgɔ, kɛndɔkɛ for 'ear'). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.

{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Pare and Aekyom basic vocabulary ! gloss !! Pare !! Aekyom |- ! head | keba; kiba || pɔƀe |- ! hair | osɛ; ouse || tɛnɛ |- ! ear | mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ || kɛndɔkɛ |- ! eye | kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ || krO-ŋɛ |- ! nose | kene; kine || koe |- ! tooth | male; marɛ; pɛrɛ || pʰɛtɛ |- ! tongue | tɛ || tiː |- ! leg | tamakali || |- ! louse | kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ || huɔlɛ |- ! dog | ti; til || psane |- ! pig | mele || |- ! bird | tie; tiye || |- ! egg | moʔo; mɔʔɔ || |- ! blood | sowo; sɔwɔ || |- ! bone | ko; kɔ || kro |- ! skin | sia; siga; siya || kare |- ! breast | bu || tutɛ |- ! tree | i̧; ĩ || de; doe |- ! man | kobo || |- ! woman | wigi || |- ! sun | gẽnɛ̃; gine || toe |- ! moon | abi || |- ! water | mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume || waɛ |- ! fire | ne; nɛ || de; doe |- ! stone | iebɔ; iyebo || |- ! road, path | utigi || tɛnɛ |- ! name | hi || hi |- ! eat | da; denu; de-nu || də |- ! one | oteso; ɔtesɔ || |- ! two | diyabo; diyabɔ || |- ! String Bag | dissa; disaɔ ||

Evolution Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:

Aekyom language: kendoke 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k[V] khatike 'leg' < *k(a,o) ndok[V], kare 'skin' < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu di 'firewood, fire' < *inda

Pa language: keba 'head' < *kV(mb,p)(i,u)tu ama 'mother < *am(a,i) di- 'burn' < *nj(a,e,i)

Loanwords Kamula and Doso Loanwords between Kamula and Doso:

{| class="wikitable" |+ Kamula–Doso loanwords ! No. !! Kamula !! Doso !! Turumsa |- | 1 || 'father' || [a:] 'father' || [a:] 'father' |- | 2 || 'mother' || ['wai] 'mother' || ['wai] 'mother' |- | 3 || 'older brother' || ['bapa] 'older brother' || |- | 4 || 'older sister' || ['nana] 'older sister' || |- | 5 || 'blood' || ['omari] 'blood' || |- | 6 || 'stomach' || || [kù'ko] 'belly (outside)' |- | 7 || 'wallaby' || [ka'pia] 'wallaby' || [kapia] 'wallaby' |- | 8 || 'cassowary' || [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' || [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' |- | 9 || 'cloud' || ['waɾa] 'cloud' || |- | 10 || 'sand' || ['asiɾa] 'sand' ||

Aekyom and Ok Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages:

{| class="wikitable" |+ Aekyom loanwords from Ok ! No. !! Aekyom !! Mountain Ok !! Lowland Ok |- | 1 || [mon] 'rubbish' || *mɔːn 'rubbish, compost' || |- | 2 || [ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled' || *ɾaŋg 'garden' || *joŋg 'garden' |- | 3 || [khno] 'canoe' || || *kono 'canoe' |- | 4 || [ambum(e)] 'turtle' || *ambɔːm 'turtle species' || *ambom 'turtle' |- | 5 || [khwiɺe] 'hornbill' || *kaweːɾ 'Papuan hornbill' || *kaweɾ 'hornbill' |- | 6 || [ubine] 'rhinoceros beetle' || *umiːn 'rhinoceros beetle' || |- | 7 || [mom] 'nephew, maternal' || *mɔːm 'mother's brother' || *mom 'mother's brother' |- | 8 || [ahwoe] 'grandmother' || *ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother' || *apok 'grandmother' |- | 9 || [khendoke] 'outer ear' || *kindɔːŋg 'inner ear' || *kende 'ear' |- | 10 || [mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth' || *maŋgat 'mouth, chin' || *maŋgot 'mouth'

Kamula and Aramia River Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages:

{| class="wikitable" |+ Kamula loanwords from Aramia River ! No. !! Kamula !! Waruna !! Gogodala |- | 1 || 'taro' || [bibi] 'taro' || [bibi] 'taro' |- | 2 || 'yam' || || [waisa] 'yam' |- | 3 || 'canoe' || [gwawa] 'canoe' || [gawa] 'canoe' |- | 4 || 'paddle, oar' || [keari] 'paddle' || [keari] 'paddle' |- | 5 || 'chicken' || [kakaba] 'fowl' || |- | 6 || 'breadfruit' || [kawaki] 'breadfruit' ||

Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970):

Abbreviations pAD = proto-Awyu–Dumut pA = proto-Awyu pD = proto-Dumut pKE = proto-Kamula–Elevala pK = proto-Kamula pE = proto-Elevala

{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut potential cognates ! Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970) !! Kamula–Elevala |- | pAD *dat- 'hear' || pKE *dade- 'hear' |- | pAD *do- 'be cooked' || pKE *du- 'burn, cook' |- | pAD *ɛdex- 'give' || pE *dæ- 'give' |- | pAD *füp 'name' || pKE *hi 'name' |- | pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' || pE *go 'you (sg.)' |- | pAD *ket 'flower' || Pa [ke] 'blossom' |- | pAD *mak 'shoulder' || pKE *makæ 'shoulder' |- | pAD *nop 'I' || pE *nɔ 'I' |- | pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' || Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly' |- | pAD *xaiban 'head' || Pa [keba] 'head' |- | pAD *xop 'male, man' || pKE *kopo 'man' |- | pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' || Pa [ẽ] 'tree' |- | pA *bu 'buttocks' || pE *po 'buttocks' |- | pA *dübe, *dübi 'island' || Aekyom [dupi] 'island' |- | pA *düb(-ro) 'heart' || Kamula 'heart' |- | pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' || pE *moka 'below' |- | pA *midi(n) 'thigh' || pKE *madina 'thigh' |- | pA *wün 'liver' || Pa [wumɛ] 'liver' |- | pA *xui(-to) 'sky' || Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven' |- | pD *ba- 'sit' || pKE *pV- 'sit' |- | pD *kumöt 'thunder' || pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'

References

External links Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok Usher & Suter, Proto–Kamula – Elevala River