Kirtana (; ), also rendered as Kirtan, is a Sanskrit word that means "narrating, reciting, telling, describing" of an idea or story,MacDonell, A. A. (2004). A practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pages 15, 382-383 specifically in Indian religions. It also refers to a genre of religious performance arts, connoting a musical form of narration, shared recitation, or devotional singing, particularly of spiritual or religious ideas, native to the Indian subcontinent. A person performing kirtan is known as a kirtankara (or kirtankar, कीर्तनकार).
With roots in the Vedic anukirtana tradition, a kirtan is a call-and-response or antiphonal style song or chant, set to music, wherein multiple singers recite the names of a deity, describe a legend, express loving devotion to a deity, or discuss spiritual ideas. It may include dancing or direct expression of bhavas (emotive states) by the singer. Many kirtan performances are structured to engage the audience where they either repeat the chant,Sara Brown (2012), Every Word Is a Song, Every Step Is a Dance, PhD Thesis, Florida State University (Advisor: Michael Bakan), pages 25-26, 87-88, 277 or reply to the call of the singer.
A kirtan performance includes an accompaniment of regionally popular musical instruments, especially Indian instruments like the Indian harmonium, the veena, sitar, or ektara (strings), the tabla (one-sided drums), the mrdanga or pakhawaj (two-sided drum), flute (woodwinds), and karatalas or talas (cymbals). It is a major practice in Hinduism, Vaishnava devotionalism, Sikhism, the Sant traditions, and some forms of Buddhism, as well as other religious groups. Kirtan is sometimes accompanied by story-telling and acting. Texts typically cover religious, mythological or social subjects.
Etymology and nomenclature
The term kirtana (Devanagari: कीर्तन) generally means "telling, narrating, describing, enumerating, reporting". The Sanskrit root of kirtan is kirt (). The term is found in the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and other Vedic literature, as well as the Vedanga and Sutras literature. Kirt, according to Monier-Williams, contextually means "to mention, make mention of, tell, name, call, recite, repeat, relate, declare, communicate, commemorate, celebrate, praise, glorify".Monier William (1899), kīrt, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 2nd Ed., Oxford University Press
The term kirtan is found as anukirtan (or anukrti, anukarana, literally "retelling") in the context of a Yajna (Vedic ritual offering), which meant a dual recitation of Vedic hymns in a dialogue style that was part of a ritual dramatic performance.
The Sanskrit verses in the Shatapatha Brahmana (chapter 13.2, c. 800–700 BCE), for example, are written in the form of a riddle play between two actors.ML Varadpande (1990), History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, , page 48 According to Louis Renou, in this text, "the Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes."ML Varadpande (1990), History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, , pages 45–47
Generally speaking, kirtan, sometimes called sankirtana (literally, "collective performance"), is a kind of collective chanting or musical conversation. As a genre of religious performance art, it developed in the Indian bhakti movements as a devotional religious practice (i.e. bhakti yoga). But it is a heterogeneous practice that varies regionally, according to Christian Novetzke, and includes varying mixtures of musical instruments, dance, oration, theatre, audience participation, and moral narration.
In Maharashtra for example, Novetzke says, a kirtan is a call-and-response style performance, ranging from devotional dancing and singing by a lead singer and audience to an "intricate scholarly treatise, a social commentary or a philosophical/linguistic exposition" that includes narration, allegory, humor, erudition and entertainment—all an aesthetic part of ranga (beauty, color) of the kirtan.
Kirtan is locally known by various names, including Abhang, Samaj Gayan, Haveli Sangeet, Vishnupad, Harikatha, and Padabali. Vaishnava temples in Assam and northeastern Indian have large worship halls called kirtan ghar—a name derived from their being used for congregational singing and performance arts. Kirtan is also sometimes called harinam (Sanskrit: harināma) in some Vaishnava traditions, which means "[chanting] the names of God (Hari)."
In regional languages, kirtan is scripted as ; Nepali and ; ; ; / ; Sindhi: / ; ; .
Bhajan and kirtan Kirtans and bhajans are closely related, sharing common aims (devotion, faith, spiritual uplift and liberation), subjects, and musical themes. A bhajan is freer, and can be a single melody performed by a single singer with or without musical instruments. Kirtan, in contrast, is generally a group performance, typically with a call and response or antiphonal musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation or gentle sharing of ideas. Kirtan also generally includes two or more musical instruments, and has roots in Sanskrit prosody and poetic meter.
Many kirtans are structured for more audience participation, where the singer calls a spiritual chant, a hymn or a devotional theme, the audience responds by repeating the chant or by chanting back a reply of their shared beliefs.
Hindu kirtan
Musical recitation of hymns, mantras and the praise of deities has ancient roots in Hinduism, and may be found in the Vedic literature. A key feature of popular Hindu kirtan is that it is mostly sung in vernacular languages like Hindi and Bengali (unlike Vedic chanting, which is done in Sanskrit), though this may include Sanskrit mantras.Arnold et al. (1998). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent, p. 247. Taylor & Francis. This style of vernacular singing became popular during the medieval era (1300–1550) and the early modern period (1550–1750).
Hindu kirtan is influenced by the practices and teachings of the various devotional Bhakti movements and by the figures of the Sant tradition (like Kabir, Ravidas, and Namdev).Enstedt, Daniel; Plank, Katarina (2023). Eastern Practices and Nordic Bodies: Lived Religion, Spirituality and Healing in the Nordic Countries, p. 96. Springer Nature. In and through their kirtans, both emphasized cultivating an emotional loving relationship with a personal God. Beginning with the Tamil Alvars and Nayanars in around the 6th century, bhakti spread outside Tamilakam after the 12th century.Karen Pechelis (2011), Bhakti Traditions, in The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, , pages 107-121 The foundations of the kirtan traditions are also found in works like the Bhagavad-gita which describes the bhakti marga (path of loving devotion to god) as a means to moksha. References to kirtan as a musical recitation are also found in the Bhagavata Purana, an important Vaishnava text. The story of Prahlada in the Avatara Katha mentions kirtan as one of nine forms of bhakti.
Bhakti poets and musicians like Jayadeva (the 12th century author of the Sanskrit Gita Govinda) were influential in the development of Indian devotional music genres like kirtan (which, though written in the vernacular, often imitated the style of Sanskrit bhakti poems).Arnold et al. (1998). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent, pp. 249, 845. Taylor & Francis. Jayadeva was a great classical composer and wrote devotional music in the dhruvapada style (which is similar to dhrupad).
There are various forms of Hindu kirtan, including northern traditions (often influenced by Hindustani music and Bengali music) and southern (Carnatic) traditions. Speaking of the Bengali kirtan tradition, Peggy Holroyde writes that "kirtans do not strictly adhere to the raga scale and they incorporate a chorus led by a leader. Much of the musical value is subordinated to the sentimental emotion expressed in the words of the song."Holroyde, Peggy (2017). Indian Music: A Vast Ocean of Promise, Routledge. Regarding the southern (Carnatic) traditions of kirtan, they are generally "less ornate" than northern kirtan, making less use of "grace, trills and arabesques", but they are also much more structured musical forms.
While kirtan is influenced by the practice of Indian classical music, they are much simpler than the complicated instrumental and vocal compositions of Indian classical ensembles. The focus of kirtan is on the lyrics or mantras, which deliver religious messages and stories. Guy Beck, writing on the northern kirtan tradition, states that "melody and rhythm are important, but devotional singers normally deplore musical virtuosity for its own sake, in contrast with the classical Hindustani and Karnatak traditions, which emphasize improvisation and technical mastery. A large variety of musical styles and forms exist, and no single formula has ever been mandated by custom to the exclusion of others. Musicians and religious leaders thus freely compose religious and devotional songs."Arnold et al. (1998). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent, p. 248. Taylor & Francis. However, some kirtan styles are highly refined and technical, like dhrupad and Bengali padavali kirtan, which is considered by Bengalis to be the most cultured religious music.Arnold et al. (1998). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent, p. 250. Taylor & Francis.
Regarding the arrangement, most kirtan performances are done by a group, with a choir led by a lead singer sitting on the floor, though sometimes, kirtan is done by standing group in temples, religious processions, or on the street.
Generally speaking, the performance may begin with recitations of Sanskrit mantras, like Om, names of deities, and may also include some Sanskrit prayers.Arnold et al. (1998). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent, p. 255. Taylor & Francis. Then the lead singer sings a song or a mantra while accompanying himself with a versatile instrument (like a harmonium or a sarangi), and the chorus (which may include the audience as well) repeats the lines and provides musical accompaniment and keeps the rhythm (with percussion instruments like the tabla). Sometimes the lead may have some solo lines, and the chorus can accompany them with a refrain. The performance may be punctuated by short sermons or stories. The song repertoire is generally drawn from medieval authors, but may include more recent additions. In temples, a formal worship ceremony (arati) may also follow.
Styles of Hindu kirtan
Vaishnava kirtan
One important promoter of Vaishnava kirtan in Bengal was Chandidas (1339–1399), who introduced Vaishnava kirtan in Bengali and was very influential on later Vaishnava northern kirtan. Chandidas was instrumental in the Bengali Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā tradition, a form of tantric Vaishnavism focused on Radha and Krishna which flourished in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Assam.Young, Mary (2014). The Baul Tradition: Sahaj Vision East and West, pp. 27-30. SCB Distributors.Hayes, Glen A. "The Vaisnava Sahajiya Traditions of Medieval Bengal", in Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr., Princeton Readings in Religions, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995: 333-351. The Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā tradition produced many great Bengali language poets and singers.Young, Mary (2014). The Baul Tradition: Sahaj Vision East and West, pp. 27-36. SCB Distributors.