Feminism in Egypt has involved a number of social and political groups throughout its history. Although Egypt has in many respects been a forerunner in matters of reform particularly "in developing movements of nationalism, of resistance to imperialism and of feminism," its development in fighting for equality for women and their rights has not been easy.
Position of women in Egyptian history
In early Egyptian history (see Ancient Egypt), women's position in Egyptian society is believed to have been equal to that of men. For example, female gods played a vital role in ancient Egyptian religion, roles which can be identified as being of equal importance to that of male gods. Goddesses such as Mut, Isis and Hathor ruled over and controlled many areas of human activity. It is believed by many scholars that the high status of such goddesses is indicative of the high status of women in Pharaonic society. Equal status can be further illustrated by the very fact that Egypt was ruled by queens – female pharaohs such as Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII, regents such as Meritneith or Ahmose-Nefertari or holders of the prestigious title God's Wife of Amun during the Late Period. Since their position was largely hereditary, women of commoner background such as the physician Peseshet, the vizier Nebet, or the scribe Irtyrau are better examples of women's position in Egypt. Examples of early Egyptian artwork are also important in identifying the potentially revered position held by women in Ancient Egypt. Paintings of the earlier eras show men and women as being of equal size. Kumari Jeyawordena claims that it is only after "2000 BC that women are often depicted somewhat smaller than males probably indicating a diminution of their status".
Western rule Foreign control of Egypt was the status quo of the country's leadership for many centuries. Control of the country has ranged from early Roman domination, to the country becoming an Arab conquest in the 7th century, and then in the 16th century becoming part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire (see History of Egypt, Egypt). However, it was the French invasion of Egypt that began to change the position of women in Egyptian society and that influenced the beginnings of social change in the country.
The French Invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 was to have significant social implications for the country. The French invasion "caused a rapid flow of European ideas into Egypt including the ideology of the French Revolution". Marriages took place between French officers and Egyptian women. There were also "cases of Egyptian women imitating the behavior and dress of the women of the expedition".' The Feminist Movement in the Arab World, Intervention and Studies from Four Countries' Nadia Abdel Wahab Al–Afifi, Amal Abdel Hadi Such ideas and beliefs were not however welcomed by all in Egypt. As a result, a backlash emerged against such Western ideas. The historian al Jabarti reportedly commented on the "pernicious innovations and corruption of women caused by the French occupation".
Following a series of civil wars, Egypt saw the end of French rule. Albanian General Muhammad Ali (see Muhammad Ali's seizure of power) established authority in Egypt in 1805 and was appointed as Ottoman viceroy. During his time in power, a series of modernization reforms were introduced in Egypt. Reforms included updating public works and improving the industrialization of Egypt and importantly included a series of reforms within education. Although he generally regarded "education as a means of fitting young men for the public service", advancements were also made in the education of women. Daughters of the upper classes in Egypt of the time were able to receive education at home, however, poorer girls were able to attend Kuttabs where the Qur'an was taught along with some reading and writing. In 1832 Muhammad Ali went on to build a school at which girls and women were taught to be midwives. Further improvements to women's position within Egyptian society were introduced by Isma'il Pasha known as Ismail the Magnificent (December 31, 1830 – March 2, 1895), Muhammad Ali's successor. In 1873, his third wife, Jashem Afet Hanum, started the Suyliyya Girls School which provided teaching to girls of a variety of subjects ranging from history and religion to arithmetic. Female education did however remain restrictive. According to Abdel Kadar, "the purpose was restricted to preparing girls to be efficient mothers and good wives, and it was mainly the girls of bourgeois families who benefited".Abdel Kadar 1973:118-19 'Reformism and women's rights in Egypt' in 'Feminism and Nationalism in the third world'
Despite both social and economic reforms and further improvements made by Isma'il Pasha, Egypt had fallen heavily into debt to European powers and to protect its financial interests, particularly those in the Suez Canal, the UK seized control of the Egyptian government (1882).
Opposition against foreign intervention, particularly against the British occupation of Egypt began to grow. A reaction against Western influence and social and economic dissatisfaction led to the emergence of the Nationalist movement. Reformism and therefore feminism, which were originally closely linked, began to diverge.
Nationalism
The start of the 20th century saw a growing national consciousness. "The overwhelming presence of Europe and the collapse of much of the traditional order led to a reconsideration of Egypt's position and identity to the West. National independence seemed to supply the answer to western domination".' Feminism and Nationalist Politics in Egypt' Thomas Philip, 'Women in the Muslim world' edited by Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie A growing dissatisfaction with Egyptian society began to emerge and with it came calls for reform. The improvement of the position of women was part of this reform. "Since the end of the nineteenth century, Egyptian Nationalists have claimed that there can be no improvement of the state without improving the position of women."
Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement. The Wafd was the first organised mass party in Egypt. Although Zaghlul and the Wafd gained a majority in the Legislative Assembly, this did not stop the British government from exiling Zaghlul and some of his fellow part members to Malta on March 8, 1919. This proved to be the final straw for many and in protest Egyptian society rose to demonstrate against the British in what was the country's first modern Revolution.
1919 Revolution Western repression along with the exile of the popular Wafd leader Saad Zaghlul proved to be the catalyst for change resulting in violent demonstrations. All classes of Egyptian society participated and it was the first time women were involved in such rallies. In fact "open political agitation and action on the part of women began with their participation in the Nationalist movement against the British". The first women's specific march against the occupation happened on March 16, 1919, and was principally organised by Huda Sha'arawi, around 300 Egyptian women attended.
"The veiled gentlewomen of Cairo paraded in the streets shouting slogans for independence and freedom from foreign occupation. They organised strikes and demonstrations, boycotts of British goods and wrote petitions protesting British actions in Egypt".Marsat 1978:269 'Reformism and women's rights in Egypt' in 'Feminism and Nationalism in the third world' These demonstrations are believed to be what led to the emergence of the first phase of Egyptian feminism.
Feminist publications Zaynab Fawwaz, both a journalist and writer, is considered the first women to write autobiographical works in Egypt, publishing "الدر المنثور في طبقات ربات الخدور", (The Book of Scattered Pearls Regarding Categories of Women, 1894–95) which contained the lives of 456 women and their achievements. Fawwaz wrote in order to provide examples of the strength of women and celebrate their achievements. These autobiographies were later widely published in the Egyptian Press.
Egyptian press and periodicals, including women's press, grew during a period of nationalist movements in Egypt, it was a key way to debate political issues. Women's press was less censored than the mainstream patriarchal press, as British occupying forces saw it as less of a threat to power. The period before the creation of political parties in Egypt in 1907 is characterised as a key journalistic phase for nationalism and also for feminism, with an increase in female readership too. Hind Nawfal's publication al- Fatat was first published in 1892 in Alexandria. Nawfal stated that this was a periodical for and about women, in which she aimed to defend women's rights, express her views and discuss their duties. After Nawfal's journal, more feminist press was created at a rate of one per year through the first world war.
Other examples of feminist press are the Coptic journal set up by Malaka Sa-d al-jins al-lateef (1908-1925) which discussed Coptic women's concerns as well as publishing a diverse set of female editors. As well as the Muslim women's journal Tarqiyat al-Mar’a, also published in 1908 the journal argued for the implementation of women's rights which were granted by Islam, as well as arguing for gender segregation and veiling.
Although originally inspired by western European and Turkish women's press, these feminist journals began to take on their own style. A women did not feature on the cover until the 1920s, with drawings previously being preferred due to conventions on veiling. During this time, men started writing women's periodicals too as it became an accepted literary genre, these often came in a tabloid form.
May Ziadeh, Lebanese-Palestinian feminist and author also published a large selection of feminist autobiographies, her works are considered by many as integral to the Arab feminist movement. During the period of 1919–1925, Ziadeh published many autobiographies of women as part of her advocacy for the emancipation of women, including of Egyptian feminist Malak Hifni Nassef in her book Bahithat-ul-Badia.
Egyptian Feminist Union
There was two phases of the feminist movement. The first is considered to have happened between the end of the 19th century and 1919, this was a period of increasing nationalist consciousness and social nationalism. This phase was more invisible to the public in comparison to later phases as women were not yet moving in the public domain and revolved around middle and upper-middle-class women. The second phase is considered to have been between 1919 and 1923, when women slowly came into the public domain and engaged in political, social and economic activism. For example, in 1922 the women's movement organised their first boycott of British goods and services, women played a significant role in upholding this as principal buyers and household managers. They also urged Egyptians to withdraw money from British banks and instead invest in the new National bank. The next phase of the feminist movement is considered to have taken place between (1923–1939). The Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) was founded by the former leader of the women's committee in the Wafd party, Hoda Shaarawi. This led to her participation in an international Feminist Conference in Rome and upon her return, along with Nabawiyya Musa and Saiza Nabarawi, Shaarawi caused outrage in the gesture that she made against the Egyptian authorities and traditions by throwing her veil into the sea. This act caused a particular scandal for Shaarawi was the wife of an eminent Pasha. However she was able to inspire other women to cast off their veils.Mirai 1981:69 'Reformism and women's rights in Egypt' in 'Feminism and Nationalism in the third world'