The status of women in North Korea is not fully understood outside the country, due to the political isolation of North Korea, the unwillingness of the North Korean authorities to allow foreign investigators access in the country, and the existence of conflicting reports. The official position of the North Korean government is that women have equal rights with men.
North Korea has enacted laws such as the Law on Sex Equality, the Labor Law, and the Law on Nationalization of Essential Industries. Although these social systems have not entirely been successful, they have been integrated into daily life to help women. The reforms implemented provided women's rights at work, rights of inheriting and sharing of properties, and rights of free marriage and divorce. North Korea also outlawed polygamy. The state confiscated all privately owned land, in theory eliminating property discrimination. Today, women in North Korea participate in a variety of labor forces, and there is a considerable number of women who are in high positions. Also, there are many facilities for women including sanatoria, rest homes, and maternity hospitals.
The ratio of women to men in high wage jobs is considerably lower than that of low wage jobs. In addition, most women in high positions in society are either relatives or wives of top leaders. Jon Halliday has argued that the political atmosphere is an example of the same patriarchal structure that feminist reforms intended to dissolve. This demonstrates the degree to which Neo-Confucian ideals still permeate and affect social and political policies. North Korea has not followed China, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam in their campaigns against Confucianism.Halliday, Jon. "Women in North Korea: an Interview with the Korean Democratic Women's Union Journal." Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 17 (1985): 46–47. Print.
Before the division of Korea
In the Joseon Dynasty, women were expected to give birth to and rear male heirs to assure the continuation of the family line. Women had few opportunities to participate in the social, economic, or political life of society. There were a few exceptions to limitations imposed on women's roles. For example, female shamans were called on to cure illnesses by driving away evil spirits, to pray for rain during droughts, or to perform divination and fortune-telling.
Before the Yi Dynasty and Neo-Confucianism was introduced, women comparatively had more rights and freedom. Women during the Shilla period held higher positions and statuses (although not equal to those of men) in society and had many legal rights including the right to be considered the head of a household. Furthermore, during the Koryo period, remarriage of women as well as equal property inheritance between men and women was completely acceptable.Park, Kyung Ae. "Women and Revolution in North Korea." Pacific Affairs Winter 65.4 (1992): 528. Print.
However, as Korea entered the Yi Dynasty, Confucian ideology was strongly adhered to by society and immensely affected the roles of men and women. From the young age of seven, males and females were separated and restricted to designated areas of the house: the outer part (sarangcha) for the males and the inner part (ancha) for the women. By Korean Confucian standards, "a virtuous woman obeyed men throughout her life: in youth, she obeyed her father; when married, she obeyed her husband; if her husband died, she was subject to her son."
Few women received any formal education in traditional Korean society. After the opening of Korea to foreign contact in the late 19th century, however, Christian missionaries established girls' schools, thus allowing young Korean females of any class to obtain a modern education. With the influence of Silhak, Tonghak, and Western thought, a priority interest focused on human rights and equality. Thereby in 1886, Ewha Haktang (Ewha School) was established as the first modern women's school. And in response to the Chanyang-hoe (Chanyang Association) and their emphasis on education for women, in 1908, the government established the first public girls' school called Hansong Girls' High School.Park, Kyung Ae. "Women and Revolution in North Korea." Pacific Affairs Winter 65.4 (1992): 529–530. Print.
During the Japanese colonial period, 1910–1945, Korean women experienced some social changes much like women did in the Western world. Urbanization and modernization in the early 20th century opened up opportunities for women in the workforce. Women moved from rural regions to cities to make new lives for themselves, often finding jobs at factories where they had regular salaries (a new phenomenon for women from rural farms), which were often sent home to supplement their families' income.Hwang, Kyung Moon. "A History of Korea." Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. 166. These city girls had a newfound sense of independence and self-determination in employment and city life. However, the poor working conditions and long hours of early 20th century factories often limited their success and happiness.Hwang, Kyung Moon. "A History of Korea." Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. 169.
Other more fortunate women received education at secondary schools in urban areas. Some even had the chance to study abroad at more prestigious institutions in Japan. These women composed a new sector of the social elite and were participants in consumer culture. These women, dubbed "Modern girls," took advantage of the new opportunities afforded to women in the 1920s and 1930s. They transcended limitations of the agricultural class by marrying urban professionals, participated in the burgeoning modern art and culture scene, and abandoned traditional Korean hanbok for Western attire. While the majority of Korean women still lived traditional lives, it was these "modern girls" that helped to transform the cultural landscape into a more contemporary and internationalist scene.
Although many of these opportunities were not available to women in the countryside, the 1920s and 1930s did bring positive changes to rural areas. Women were trained and educated on a more limited scale, and there were movements to eradicate illiteracy.Hwang, Kyung Moon. "A History of Korea." Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. 170. These movements towards education across the socio-economic spectrum would later influence and encourage North Korean communist activities. It aided in the spread of communist ideals and made it easier to educate and rally the people around communism. Women were also more involved in the public sphere – a continuation of the changes made during the colonial period.
After the division
During the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950
The social status and roles of women were radically changed after 1945. Before the Korean War of 1950–1953, the communist regime in North Korea began reordering traditional Korean society to reflect the ideal communist society. The communist regime in North Korea granted women positions of importance and agency in their communities in its efforts to promote equality. One such example was the inminban, units of about 20–30 families that were often led by women.Lankov, Andrei. The real North Korea: life and politics in the failed Stalinist utopia. Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 39. These women took care of building maintenance and finances and generally kept an eye on the lives of her constituents. According to the government, “an inminban head should know how many chopsticks and how many spoons are in every household.” The women also reported any suspicious activity to the police and conducted random checks. These inminban leaders directly contributed to the communist cause and culture of surveillance, serving in roles of leadership alongside their male counterparts.Lankov, Andrei. "The real North Korea: life and politics in the failed Stalinist utopia." Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2013. 40.
The regime also released a publication specifically for women, the Joseon Yeoseong, in order to further educate women on communist ideals. The publication included household tips, health advice, educational materials, and political propaganda.Kim, Suzy. "Everyday Life in the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950." Ithaca; Cornell University Press, 2013. 199.
Women had other opportunities to be involved in nascent North Korean political culture. The regime encouraged people to join various groups – women's organizations were powerful and ambitious. One such organization was the Korean Women's Socialist League, which made demands to the North Korean government for paid maternity leave and the abolition of wage discrimination.Kim, Suzy. "Everyday Life in the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950." Ithaca; Cornell University Press, 2013. 201. They were also responsible for other social changes that included education, prenatal services, and women's lectures. Through organizations like this, women had some degree of agency under the North Korean regime.
Women were not necessarily completely free, and their rights were limited. The regime held a tight grip the on women's daily lives during the revolution. For example, the state gave women a model schedule to follow, which required women to cook and clean and only allowed for an hour and a half of personal time at the end of the day. They were also expected to masterfully balance duties at home with duties for their organizations, a task that proved too exhausting and nearly impossible.
Many women contributed to the economy during the North Korean Revolution as well. Women took on the roles of journalists, teachers, clerks, and more. These women were forward thinking in their reasons for being in the workforce, some expressing a desire to be trailblazers for future businesswomen.Kim, Suzy. "Everyday Life in the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950." Ithaca; Cornell University Press, 2013. 202. They still saw economic involvement as an uphill battle, though, because of the regime's emphasis on women's duties in the home. So, although women had political and economic agency in some ways, they were also tied to the home, and this disparity ultimately only reinforced traditional gender roles, even though the communist government stressed the importance of gender equality.
Women's revolutionary role also became tied to motherhood, meaning that women were seen as revolutionary heroes, but only as mothers who raised proper socialist children.Kim, Suzy. "Everyday Life in the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950." Ithaca; Cornell University Press, 2013. 187. Mothers were seen as the “most sacrificial model citizen,” but despite this lofty ideological position, mothers were confined to the home and to the lower social strata. The government counted on mothers to instill strong communist values in their children and support the regime at the most basic domestic level. Thus, for most women, agency was situated in the home, not in the workplace or political sphere.
During the first three months of the Korean War, the Korean People's Army installed similar women's organizations in the South during its occupation of South Korea.Armstrong, Charles K. "Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992." Ithaca; Cornell University Press, 2013, p. 36.
Post-Korean War