Dirasha (also known as Ghidole, Diraasha, Dirayta, Gidole, Gardulla, Dhirasha) is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is spoken in the Omo region of Ethiopia, in the hills west of Lake Chamo, around the town of Gidole.
A number of speakers also use Oromo or Konso. According to Wondwosen Tesfaye Abire, the "Dirasha" is the name of the people, and the name of the language is given variously as "Dirashitata, Dirayta and Diraytata".
None of these names seem to be derogatory, but rather different ways of referring to the same language.
The Diraytata language is spoken by approximately 65,000 people, primarily in the Omo region of Ethiopia.
The language has a three ejective consonant phonemes and two implosive consonant phonemes, fitting the pattern of the Ethiopian Language Area. It has two tones and five vowels. Duration (or gemination) is distinctive for both consonants and vowels.
Phonology Source:
Phonetic Inventory: Consonant IPA Symbols Dirayta transcription utilizes symbols that differ from those of the traditional IPA chart. Each ejective may be written two ways.
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Plosive Ejective Implosive Fricative Affricate Lateral Flap Glide
When /n/ and /ʔ/ occur as /nʔ/, they contract to form ŋ. /n/ and /ʔ/ must occur in that sequence, with no intervening vowels or consonants.
Phonetic Inventory: Vowel IPA Symbols FrontBackHighMid Low
Low and High Tones -Dirayta is a 2-tone language.
-Low Tone: Absence of accentual markings +Low Tone: Monosyllabic CVVC wordsVowelSample Word: DiraytaSample Word: English Translationihiiplocal beeremeetchildapaascleaveruCould not locate exampleoCould not locate exampleɔCould not locate example -High Tone: Represented by acute accent diacritic above vowel (í, é, á, ú, ó, ɔ́)
-Mandatory for monosyllabic CVC and disyllabic CVC/CVVC words +High Tone Accentual Patterns: Monosyllabic CVC WordsVowelSample Word: DiraytaSample Word: English TranslationíCould not locate exampleéhénfiveákápmouthúCould not locate exampleópóndry seasonɔ́Could not locate example -For disyllabic words, only one syllable may contain high tone.
-High tone is (mostly) assigned to the first vowel within the initial syllable. However, high tone may be assigned to the first vowel within the ultimate syllable. +High Tone Accentual Patterns: Disyllabic CVC/CVVC WordsVowelSample Word: DiraytaSample Word: English Translationíšíra ʃíraliveréʔérpalieéʔéetotevening mealésaytétoiléwaalétlong-necked calabashápáratyearámáakotsnakeúkúnɗafruitósóhameatómóohotsky-godóporrótbarleyɔ́Could not locate example -For trisyllabic words, high tone is (mostly) assigned to the ultimate syllable. However, high tone may be assigned to BOTH initial and ultimate syllables. +High Tone Accentual Patterns: Trisyllabic CVC/CVVC WordsVowelSample Word: DiraytaSample Word: English Translationíɗímaʔmaʔrib-cageémat'aatétround white potatoákáč̣erraclothápalawwáttype of birdá, áháwalláttype of dumplingá, ók'áalalót ḳáalalótthin ale-gruelúmút'ura múṭuraheartú, ék'úrt'ummét ḳúrṭummétfishókópilashieldó, ák'óhanát ḳóhanátafternoon coffee sessionɔ́Could not locate example
Grammar Pluralization of Nouns Pluralisation of nouns in Diraytata is a complex process that depends on several factors, such as the gender, number, case, and definiteness of the noun. According to Wondwosen, Diraytata has four genders: masculine, feminine, plural, and neuter. The plural gender is used for nouns that are inherently plural, such as body parts, liquids, and collective nouns. The neuter gender is used for nouns that are not classified as masculine, feminine, or plural. The number system of Diraytata distinguishes between singular, plural, and paucal. The singular is used for one entity, the plural is used for more than one entity, and the paucal is used for a few entities. The case system of Diraytata marks the grammatical function of the noun in the sentence, such as subject, object, or possessor. The definiteness system of Diraytata indicates whether the noun is specific or non-specific, known or unknown, or new or old information.
The pluralisation of nouns in Diraytata is achieved by adding suffixes to the noun stem. The suffixes vary according to the gender, case, and definiteness of the noun. Here are some examples of how nouns are pluralised in Diraytata:
Masculine nouns: The plural suffix for masculine nouns is -ool, which changes to -aal after a consonant. For example, the noun 'lion' becomes 'lions' in the plural. The paucal suffix for masculine nouns is -aa, which changes to -a after a consonant. For example, the noun 'lion' becomes 'a few lions' in the paucal. The singular suffix for masculine nouns is -titi, which changes to -ti after a consonant. For example, the noun 'lion' becomes 'a/the particular lion' in the singular. Feminine nouns: The plural suffix for feminine nouns is -oot, which changes to -at after a consonant. For example, the noun 'breast' becomes 'breasts' in the plural. The paucal suffix for feminine nouns is -aa, which changes to -a after a consonant. For example, the noun 'breast' becomes 'a few breasts' in the paucal. The singular suffix for feminine nouns is -titi, which changes to -ti after a consonant. For example, the noun 'breast' becomes 'a/the particular breast' in the singular. Plural nouns: The plural suffix for plural nouns is -ool, which does not change after a consonant. For example, the noun 'teeth' remains 'teeth' in the plural. The paucal suffix for plural nouns is -aa, which changes to -a after a consonant. For example, the noun 'teeth' becomes 'a few teeth' in the paucal. The singular suffix for plural nouns is -titi, which changes to -ti after a consonant. For example, the noun 'teeth' becomes 'a/the particular tooth' in the singular. Neuter nouns: The plural suffix for neuter nouns is -ool, which changes to -aal after a consonant. For example, the noun 'calf' becomes 'calves' in the plural. The paucal suffix for neuter nouns is -aa, which changes to -a after a consonant. For example, the noun 'calf' becomes 'a few calves' in the paucal. The singular suffix for neuter nouns is -titi, which changes to -ti after a consonant. For example, the noun 'calf' becomes 'a/the particular calf' in the singular.
The case and definiteness markers are added after the number suffixes. The case markers are -a for nominative, -i for accusative, -e for genitive, and -o for dative. The definiteness markers are -ta for definite and -ra for indefinite. For example, the noun 'lion' can have the following forms in the plural:
'lions' (nominative, indefinite) 'the lions' (nominative, definite) 'some lions' (nominative, indefinite) 'lions' (accusative, indefinite) 'the lions' (accusative, definite) 'some lions' (accusative, indefinite) 'to lions' (dative, indefinite) 'to the lions' (dative, definite) 'to some lions' (dative, indefinite) 'of lions' (genitive, indefinite) 'of the lions' (genitive, definite) 'of some lions' (genitive, indefinite)
Inflection of Verbs based on the Tense, Aspect, and Mood The Diraytata language inflects verbs based on tense, aspect, and mood by using a combination of prefixes, suffixes, and tone patterns. According to Wondwosen, Diraytata has three main tenses: past, present, and future. The past tense is marked by a low tone on the verb stem, the present tense is marked by a high tone on the verb stem, and the future tense is marked by a prefix ʔan- and a high tone on the verb stem. For example, the verb 'spread' has the following forms in the three tenses:
Past: 'spread' (low tone) Present: 'spread' (high tone) Future: 'will spread' (prefix and high tone)
The aspect system of Diraytata distinguishes between perfective and imperfective aspects. The perfective aspect indicates that the action is completed or viewed as a whole, while the imperfective aspect indicates that the action is ongoing or viewed as a part. The perfective aspect is marked by a suffix -i for singular subjects and -u for plural subjects. The imperfective aspect is marked by a suffix -a for singular subjects and -o for plural subjects. For example, the verb 'spread' has the following forms in the two aspects:
Perfective: 'spread' (singular), 'spread' (plural) Imperfective: 'spreading' (singular), 'spreading' (plural)
The mood system of Diraytata expresses the speaker's attitude or modality towards the action. Diraytata has four main moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and conditional. The indicative mood is used for factual or neutral statements, the imperative mood is used for commands or requests, the subjunctive mood is used for wishes or hypothetical situations, and the conditional mood is used for conditional or hypothetical situations. The indicative mood is marked by a suffix -ti for singular subjects and -tu for plural subjects. The imperative mood is marked by a suffix -ta for singular subjects and -to for plural subjects. The subjunctive mood is marked by a suffix -te for singular subjects and -té for plural subjects. The conditional mood is marked by a suffix -tá for singular subjects and -tó for plural subjects. For example, the verb 'spread' has the following forms in the four moods:
singular plural Indicative ʔáaf-ti 'spread' ʔáaf-tu 'spread' Imperative ʔáaf-ta 'spread!' ʔáaf-to 'spread!' Subjunctive ʔáaf-te 'spread' ʔáaf-té 'spread' Conditional ʔáaf-tá 'spread' ʔáaf-tó 'spread'
The tense, aspect, and mood markers can be combined to form complex verb forms that express various temporal, aspectual, and modal meanings. For example, the verb ʔáaf 'spread' can have the following complex forms:
'spread' (past perfective indicative singular) 'spreading' (present imperfective imperative singular) 'will spread' (future perfective subjunctive plural) 'will be spreading' (future imperfective conditional plural)
Verbs Agreeing with their Subjects' Nouns Verbs in the Diraytata language agree with their subject nouns in terms of number and person. This means that the verb form changes depending on whether the subject is singular or plural, and whether the subject is first, second, or third person. For example, the verb 'spread' has different forms depending on the subject:
singular plural 1st person ʔáaf-ti 'I spread' ʔáaf-tu 'we spread' 2nd person ʔáaf-ta 'you spread' ʔáaf-to 'you spread' 3rd person ʔáaf-te 'he/she/it spreads' ʔáaf-té 'they spread'
some more verbs and their forms according to the number and person of the subject:
'eat' 'drink' 'sleep' 'walk' 'sing' 1stperson 'I eat' 'I drink' 'I sleep' 'I walk' 'I sing' 'we eat' 'we drink' 'we sleep' 'we walk' 'we sing' 2ndperson 'you eat' 'you drink' 'you sleep' 'you walk' 'you sing' 'you eat' 'you drink' 'you sleep' 'you walk' 'you sing' 3rdperson 'he/she/it eats' 'he/she/it drinks' 'he/she/it sleeps' 'he/she/it walks' 'he/she/it sings' 'they eat' 'they drink' 'they sleep' 'they walk' 'they sing'
The verb suffixes are the same for all verbs, regardless of their meaning or stem. The suffixes indicate the number and person of the subject, and also the mood of the verb. The tense and aspect of the verb are marked by tone and other suffixes.
The subject-verb agreement in Diraytata is similar to the subject-verb agreement in English, which also changes the verb form according to the number and person of the subject. For example, the verb 'spread' has different forms depending on the subject:
I spread we spread you spread he/she/it spreads they spread