A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: or ) is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree or a professional law degree.
In many jurisdictions, the LL.M. is an advanced professional degree for those already admitted to legal practice.
Definition To become a lawyer and practice law in most jurisdictions, a person must first obtain a law degree. In most common law countries, a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) is required. In the United States, a bachelor's degree followed by the Juris Doctor (J.D.) (a graduate school degree), and passing an additional set of examinations (the bar exam) is typically required to practice law.
The LL.M. program is an advanced postgraduate law program. In Canada, an LL.B is required to enter an LL.M program; in the United States and Australia, a J.D. is required. Specialized LL.M. programs have been introduced in many European countries. An LL.M. degree is typically a requirement for entry into research doctoral programs in law.
The most advanced degree programs in the law are the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D. or J.S.D.), the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or DPhil) or doctorat en droit (in France), Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Dr. iur.) (in Germany), the Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), and the Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.).
Types Most universities offer only a small number of LL.M. programs, although there is great variety over all global jurisdictions.
In Europe, LL.M. programs in European law are popular, often referred to as LL.M. Eur (Master of European Law). In the Netherlands, the title used is Meester in de Rechten (mr.) as well as in Flanders (Belgium), by those who studied Dutch or Belgian law respectively.
Some LL.M. programs, particularly in the United States and China, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country.
The length of time to study for an LL.M. program depends on the mode of study. Most full-time on-campus courses take one academic year to complete. Other students may complete their LL.M. program on a part-time basis over multiple years, and courses are increasingly available online. Part-time online courses can take between two and five years to complete.
Requirements LL.M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a degree in law, typically an LL.B. or J.D. Very few programs allow exceptions to this. Full-time LL.M. programs vary in their graduation requirements but most require students to write a thesis. Some programs are somewhat research oriented with less classroom time, while others require students to take a set number of classes.
LL.M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL.M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network by strengthening their connections among peers.
Programs by country Australia In Australia, the LLM is generally only open to graduates with a first professional degree in law (typically a JD or LLB). There are nearly 100 LLM courses in Australia across 25 institutions taught in English.
Variants of the LL.M. exist, such as the Master of Legal Practice (M.L.P.) available at the Australian National University, where students who have completed the Graduate Diploma of Legal Practice (which law graduates must obtain before being able to be admitted as a solicitor/barrister), will be granted some credit towards the Master qualification. Other variants of the LL.M. are more similar to the LL.M. available in the wider Commonwealth but under a different title, for example Master of Commercial Law, Master of International Law or Master of Human Rights Law. These courses are usually more specialised than a standard LL.M.
Canada In Canada, the LL.M. is generally open to law graduates holding a J.D., LL.B., LL.L., or B.C.L. as a first degree. Students can choose to take research-based LL.M. degrees or course-based LL.M. degrees. Research-based LL.M. degrees are one- or two-year programs that require students to write a thesis that makes a significant contribution to their field of research. Course-based LL.M. degrees do not require a significant research paper. An LL.M. can be studied part-time, and at some schools, through distance learning. LL.M. degrees can be general, or students can choose to pursue a specialized area of research.
Foreign trained lawyers who wish to practice in Canada will first need to have their education and experience assessed by the Federation of Law Societies of Canada's National Committee on Accreditation. Upon having received a certificate of accreditation from the National Committee on Accreditation, foreign law graduates would then have to obtain articles with a law firm, take the professional legal training course, and pass the professional exams to be called to the bar in a province. The University of British Columbia's LLM in Common Law is an example of one of a few LLM courses that help to prepare students for the professional exams.
China (Mainland) The LL.M. is available at China University of Political Science and Law, and the entrance requirements are native English language competency or near native English, with any bachelor's degree. The program is flexible and allows students to study Mandarin and assists with organizing work experience in Beijing and other cities in China. It normally takes two years, but can be completed in one and a half years if students take the required credits in time.
The flagship of the China-EU School of Law (CESL) in Beijing is a Double Master Programme including a Master of Chinese Law and a Master of European and International Law. The Master of European and International Law is taught in English, open for international students and can be studied as a single master programme. The International Master of Chinese Law (IMCL) is an LL.M. in Chinese law taught entirely in English.
Beijing Foreign Studies University has launched an online LLM for international professionals. The course is taken over two years, with the first covering online lessons through video and assignments, the second year is for the dissertation and an online defense is required at the end. Students are required to attend in Beijing for an introductory week in September to enroll and meet students and staff. Students also have the opportunity to get work experience at a top five law firm in China.
LL.M degree programs are available at many other universities in Mainland China, such as at Peking University, Tsinghua University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, and Shanghai International Studies University.
Faroe Islands The University of the Faroe Islands (Faroese: Fróðskaparsetur Føroya) in the Faroe Islands offers a graduate degree program in law. This degree is a variant of the LL.M., called Embætisprógv í lóg (Emb.L.) in Faroese and translated to English as Master of Legal Practise (MLP). The duration of the degree is two years, as a continuation of the Bachelor of Laws degree. Completion of the Emb.L. is one of the criteria for admission to practice law as an attorney in the Faroe Islands.
Finland In Finland, an LL.M. is the standard degree required to practice law.Government Decree on University Degrees (794/2004) section 31. No other qualifications are required.
France In France, an LL.M. in International Business Law is available at Panthéon-Assas University (Paris), the oldest school of law in France. The LL.M. is taught in English. The program allows students to study French. Entrance requirements are:
Very good English, with a master's degree in law (or equivalent); or Alternative diploma and four years' professional experience.
A further 11 institutions in France offer 20 other LLM programs taught in English, with specialties including European Law.
Germany In Germany, the LL.M. is an advanced legal qualification of a supplementary nature. Some graduates choose to undertake their LL.M. directly following their "Erstes Juristisches Staatsexamen" (the "first state examination", which constitutes the first stage of the official German legal training), an alternative postgraduate course, or their "Zweites Juristisches Staatsexamen" (that is, the second and final stage of the official German legal training).
Hong Kong LL.M. degree programmes are offered by the law faculties of The University of Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the City University of Hong Kong. An LL.B. degree is usually required for admission, but for the LL.M. in Human Rights programme offered by HKU, an undergraduate degree in any related discipline is sufficient.
India As in the United Kingdom, a master's degree in law in India provides specialization in a particular area of law. The most common areas of specialization are constitutional law, family law and taxation law.
With the establishment of the specialized autonomous law schools in India in 1987 (the first was the National Law School of India University) much emphasis is on attaining a master's level of legal education in India. Specialization has been shifting to newer areas such as corporate law, intellectual property law, and international trade law. LL.M programs in India were previously two years in duration but presently typically last one year. Some Indian universities offer a one-year LL.M. program with specializations in corporate law, constitutional law, and international business law, aimed at enhancing legal expertise for academic and professional growth.
Ireland A number of universities and colleges in Ireland offer LL.M. programs, such as Dublin City University, Trinity College Dublin, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Galway (NUIG), National University of Ireland, Maynooth (NUIM), the Law Society of Ireland in partnership with Northumbria University, and Griffith College.Hibernia moves to meet the demand for teachers by Margaret O'Brien, Sunday Business Post, 4 September 2011.
University College Dublin also offers the Masters in Common Law (MCL, Magisterii in Jure Communi, M.Jur.Com), an advanced two-year programme for non-law graduates. The degree is a qualifying law degree for admittance to the entrance exams of the Honorable Society of King's Inns.
Italy Italy offers masters programs in both Italian and in English, depending on the school. They are often called "laurea specialistica", corresponding with the second step of the Bologna plan (European curriculum), and in this case they last two years. For example, the University of Milan offers a 2 year LLM on Sustainable Development. In South Tyrol, programmes are also taught in German, as in Bolzano.
In Italy the term "master" often refers to a vocational degree, 6 or 12 months long, in specific areas, such as "law and internet security", or "law of administrative management". This type of program is often taught part-time to allow professionals already working in the field to improve their skills.
Mauritius The LLM in International Business Law from Panthéon-Assas University is also available in Mauritius at the Medine Village campus.
Netherlands To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL.M. degree with a specific set of courses in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers (NOVA) require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be conditionally written in the district court for three years. After receiving all the diplomas prescribed by NOVA and under supervision of a "patron", a lawyer is eligible to have his own practice and is unconditionally written in a court for life.
Norway