A sniper rifle is a high-precision, long-range rifle. Requirements include high accuracy, reliability, mobility, concealment, and optics, for anti-personnel, anti-materiel and surveillance uses by military snipers. The modern sniper rifle is a portable shoulder-fired rifle with either a bolt action or semi-automatic action, fitted with a telescopic sight for extreme accuracy and chambered for a high-ballistic performance centerfire cartridge.
History The Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world. Designed in 1854 by Sir Joseph Whitworth, a prominent British engineer, it used barrels with hexagonal polygonal rifling, which meant that the projectile did not have to "bite" into the rifling grooves as with conventional rifling. His rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, which had shown weaknesses during the Crimean War. At trials in 1857, which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworth's design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. The Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of 2,000 yards (around 1,830 meters), whereas the Enfield could only manage it at a distance of 1,400 yards (around 1,280 meters). During the American Civil War, Confederate sharpshooters equipped with Whitworth rifles were tasked to kill Union field artillery crews, and were responsible for killing Major General John Sedgwick—one of the highest-ranking officers killed during the Civil War—at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House.
During the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this pioneering work was the brainchild of a Colonel D. Davidson, using optical sights produced by Chance Brothers of Birmingham. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a greater distance than ever before. The telescopic sight, or scope, was originally fixed and could not be adjusted, which therefore limited its range. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having "effective accurate" ranges of up to a mile away from their target.
20th century During the Second Boer War, the latest breech-loading rifles with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both sides. The British were equipped with the Lee–Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser Model 1895 rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa, the marksman was a crucial component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 that was renowned for the expert marksmanship and stalking skills of its personnel. The men wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that "keener men never lived". After the Boer War, the Scouts became the first official sniper unit in the British Army.
It was not until World War I that sniper rifles began to be used more regularly in battle and certain soldiers given specialized training to use such a rifle. In Germany, these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, which illuminated at night in order to improve their accuracy. German gunsmiths fitted the scope above the barrel for optimal accuracy.
During World War I, the accuracy of the sniper rifle was greatly improved. By the end of World War II, snipers were reported to provide "reasonable accuracy" over with anything over this range being unpredictable."Telescopic Sights For Rifles." The British Medical Journal. vol. 1, no. 2891, 1916, p. 765. It was during World War I and II that the word ‘sniper’ began to be used commonly, whereas previously those who were armed with sniper rifles were referred to as sharpshooters or marksmen. These marksmen, wielding sniper rifles such as the Karabiner 98k and Mosin–Nagant Model 1891/30 sniper rifle, had a drastic and demoralizing effect on the battlefield. Soldiers would often remain hidden in foxholes so as not to expose themselves to the deadly accuracy of a sniper. Some soldiers even began to disregard orders from commanding officers to protect against potential harm, which thus broke down the chain of command on the battlefield. The sniper rifle soon acquired the reputation of being one of the most effective and ruthless weapons of war.
Though sniper rifles had proved to be extremely effective in combat, there was still a great reluctance in many militaries to adopt a trained sniper regiment. To effectively use a sniper rifle, a soldier had to go through particularly rigorous training, and most trainees did not make it past the first week. Sniper training was also so expensive to conduct that, even until as recently as 1970, the reasoning for having trained snipers as a part of an army was deemed questionable. In Britain, sniper rifles were not seen as being an integral part of an army until after the Germans boasted of their success with sniper teams during the early months of World War I. British army advisors supposed that the telescopic sights attached to sniper rifles were too easily damaged and thus not well suited for military use. However, they soon realized that these telescopic sights could be improved and made sturdy enough to consistently withstand the recoil of a sniper rifle shot.
Sniper rifles have continued to be used consistently throughout the later part of the 20th century in Korea, Vietnam and the Middle East as an integral part of the modern style of guerrilla warfare.
21st century The durability, accuracy and power of sniper rifles circa 2010 are beyond anything in use even ten years prior, and dwarf those of World War II sniper rifles. Modern sniper rifles are very reliable and are able to fire repeatedly without losing accuracy, whereas earlier sniper rifles were more liable to lose accuracy due to wear and tear.Popenker, Max (2001). "Modern sniper rifles". World Guns. Sniper rifles continue to be adapted and improved upon, with the effective range of sniper rifles (c. 2001) exceeding , making them one of the most accurate and efficient weapons in use.
Classification Modern sniper rifles can be divided into two basic classes: military and law enforcement.
Military
Sniper rifles manufactured for military service are often designed for very high durability, range, reliability, sturdiness, serviceability, and repairability under adverse environmental and combat conditions, at the sacrifice of a small degree of accuracy. Military snipers and sharpshooters may also be required to carry their rifles and other equipment for long distances, making it important to minimize weight. Military organizations often operate under strict budget constraints, which influences the type and quality of sniper rifles they purchase.
Law enforcement Sniper rifles built or modified for use in law enforcement are generally required to have the greatest possible accuracy, but do not need to have as long of a range.
Law enforcement-specific rifles are usually used in non-combat (often urban) environments, so they do not have the requirement to be as hardy or portable as military versions; they may also be smaller due to the decrease in required range.
Some of the first sniper rifles designed specifically to meet police and other law-enforcement requirements were developed for West German police after the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Many police services and law enforcement organizations (such as the U.S. Secret Service) now use rifles designed for law enforcement purposes.
The Heckler & Koch PSG1 is one rifle specifically designed to meet these criteria and is often referred to as an ideal example of this type of sniper rifle. The FN Special Police Rifle was built for, and is marketed to, law enforcement rather than military agencies.
Distinguishing characteristics
The features of a sniper rifle can vary widely depending on the specific tasks it is intended to perform. Features that may distinguish a sniper rifle from other weapons are the presence of a telescopic sight, unusually long overall length, a stock designed for firing from a prone position, and the presence of a bipod and other accessories.
Telescopic sight Perhaps the single most important characteristic that sets a sniper rifle apart from other military or police small arms is the mounting of a telescopic sight, which is relatively easy to distinguish from smaller optical aiming devices found on some modern assault rifles and submachine guns (such as reflector sights). The telescopic sights used on sniper rifles differ from other optical sights in that they offer much greater magnification (more than 4× and up to 40×) and have a much larger objective lens (40 to 50 mm in diameter) for a brighter image.
Most telescopic lenses employed in military or police roles also have special reticles to aid with judgment of distance, which is an important factor in accurate shot placement due to the bullet's trajectory.
Action The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic, usually recoil operation or gas operation for the latter, is usually determined by specific requirements of the sniper's role in a particular organization, with each design having advantages and disadvantages. For a given cartridge, a bolt-action rifle is cheaper to build and maintain, more reliable, and lighter, due to fewer moving parts in the mechanism. In addition, the absence of uncontrolled automatic cartridge case ejection helps avoid revealing the shooter's position. Semi-automatic weapons can serve both as a battle rifle and sniper rifle and allow for a greater rate (and hence volume) of fire. As such rifles may be modified service rifles, an additional benefit can be commonality of operation with the issued infantry rifle. A bolt action is most commonly used in both military and police roles due to its higher accuracy and ease of maintenance. Special forces operators tend to prefer semi-automatic rifles over bolt-action rifles for certain applications such as detonating unexploded ordnance from a safe distance and penetrating reinforced structures that enemy combatants are using as cover.
A designated marksman rifle (DMR) is less specialized than a typical military sniper rifle, often only intended to extend the range of a group of soldiers. Therefore, when a semi-automatic action is used, it is due to an overlap with the roles of standard-issue weapons. There may also be additional logistical advantages if the DMR uses the same ammunition as the more common standard-issue weapons. These rifles enable a higher volume of fire, but sacrifice some long-range accuracy. They are frequently built from existing selective fire battle rifles or assault rifles, often simply by adding a telescopic sight and adjustable stock.
A police semi-automatic sniper rifle may be used in situations that require a single sniper to engage multiple targets in quick succession; military semi-automatics, such as the M110 SASS, are used in similar "target-rich" environments.
Magazine
In a military setting, logistical concerns are the primary determinant of the cartridge used, so sniper rifles are usually limited to rifle cartridges commonly used by the military force employing the rifle and match grade ammunition. Since large national militaries generally change slowly, military rifle ammunition is frequently battle-tested and well-studied by ammunition and firearms experts. Consequently, police forces tend to follow military practices in choosing a sniper rifle cartridge instead of trying to break new ground with less-perfected (but possibly better) ammunition.