Multan in Punjab province of Pakistan, is one of the oldest cities of South Asia, though its exact age has yet to be determined. Multan is known for its rich ancient heritage and historic landmarks. Multan was the capital and primary cultural centre of Punjab region in the bulk of; later ancient and medieval eras . A historic hub of Indian subcontinent, Multan was centre of many civilizations in its 5 millennia old history.

Multan was made a separate state, the Emirate of Multan including in its limits parts of Punjab and Kashmir during the Arab rule of 9th and (or) 10th century. It is famous for its Sufi shrines. Province of Multan was one of the largest established provinces of the Mughal Empire.

Ancient era

Multan was founded by great grandson of Prophet Noah before 3000 BC era, according to the historian Firishta. It was home to ancient Indo Aryan civilization. According to Hindu tradition the ancient name of Multan was ''Mulasthana'' and the current name Multan was possibly associated with the Mallian people inhabiting the region, who also faced Greek army and were defeated by Alexander the Great's army after a fierce battle.Maulana Akber Shah; Aeena- ie-Haqeeqat Nima; Volume 1, pages:82–91 "Once Keshap Pura (Multan) was capital of the Raja Hurnakas.

Darius the great's invasion

Multan was conquered and included in the province of Arachosia by Achaemenid ruler Darius the great in 500 BC era. At the time Multan was part of Gandharan civilization.

Greek Invasion (327-325 BC)

Multan was ruled by various native empires before the invasion of Alexander the Great. It is said by some historians that when Alexander was fighting for the city, a poisoned arrow struck injuring him fatally and eventually leading to his death.Romm, James and Robert B. Strassler (2010). The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander New York: Anchor Books. Pg 406 ISBN 978-1-4000-7967-4 The exact place where Alexander was hit by the arrow can be seen in the old city premises. The noted Chinese traveller Huen Tsang visited Multan in 641. Under Sindh's Dynasties(489-712 AD) Multan later remained under control of Rai dynasty and Brahman Dynasty of Sindh.

Medieval era In the 7th century, Multan had its first arrival of the Muslim armies. Armies led by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah launched numerous raids from Persia into India in 664 for inclusion of the area into their empires.

Arab Sindh (711-815AD) However, only a few decades later, Muhammad bin Qasim would come on behalf of the Arabs, and take Multan region along with Sindh. His conquest was accompanied by much plundering. Umayyads inhabited Arabs in Multan who then ruled large parts of Punjab and also included Kashmir. The descendents of these Arabs are still found in various parts of Pakistan and India. Islam strengthened in the region reaching towards emerging cities of Delhi and Lahore.

After Islamic Conquest

After the conquest of Multan one had pointed out Muhammad bin Qasim about treasure hidden beneath the fountain which was buried by Raja Jesubin. Muhammad bin Qasim found 330 chests of treasure containing 13,300 Maunds gold. Entire treasure was shifted from Debal to Basra on ships. Al Beruni also visited the city during Mahmud Ghaznavi's rule".Rahimdad Khan Molai Shedai; Janat ul Sindh, 3rd edition, 1993, page:64; Sindhi Adbi Board, Jamshoro Following bin Qasim's conquest, the city was securely under Muslim rule, although it was in effect an independent state, but around the start of the 11th century, the city was attacked twice by Mahmud of Ghazni who destroyed the Sun Temple and broke its giant Idol. A graphic detail is available in Al-Biruni's writings:

Abbasid Amirate (855-959 AD)

By the mid-800s, the Banu Munabbih (also known as the Banu Sama), who claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad's Quraysh tribe came to rule Multan, and established the Emirate of Banu Munabbih, which ruled for the next century.

During this era, the Multan Sun Temple was noted by the 10th century Arab geographer Al-Muqaddasi to have been located in a most populous part of the city. The Hindu temple was noted to have accrued the Muslim rulers large tax revenues, by some accounts up to 30% of the state's revenues. During this time, the city's Arabic nickname was Faraj Bayt al-Dhahab, ("Frontier House of Gold"), reflecting the importance of the temple to the city's economy.

The 10th century Arab historian Al-Masudi noted Multan as the city where Central Asian caravans from Islamic Khorasan would assemble. The 10th century Persian geographer Estakhri noted that the city of Multan was approximately half the size of Sindh's capital Mansura, but the region of Multan was widespread, Mansura along with Multan were the only two Arab principalities in South Asia. Arabic was spoken in both cities, though the inhabitants of Multan were reported by Estakhri to also have been speakers of Persian, reflecting the importance of trade with Khorasan. Polyglossia rendered Multani merchants culturally well-suited for trade with the Islamic world.

The 10th century Hudud al-'Alam notes that Multan's rulers also controlled Lahore, though that city was then lost to the Hindu Shahi Empire. During the 10th century, Multan's rulers resided at a camp outside of the city named Jandrawār, and would enter Multan once a week on the back of an elephant for Friday prayers.Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 244.

Ismaili Emirate of Multan (959-1010 AD)

By the mid 10th century, Multan had come under the influence of the Qarmatians. The Qarmatians had been expelled from Egypt and Iraq following their defeat at the hands of the Abbasids there. Qarmatians zealots had famously sacked Mecca,Mecca's History, from Encyclopædia Britannica. and outraged the Muslim world with their theft and ransom of the Kaaba's Black Stone, and desecration of the Zamzam Well with corpses during the Hajj season of 930 CE.Glassé, Cyril. 2008. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press p. 369 They wrested control of the city from the pro-Abbasid Amirate of Banu Munabbih, and established the Emirate of Multan, thereby ruling large parts of Punjab and Kashmir including within its limits modern day capital of Pakistan Islamabad, and pledged allegiance to the Fatimid Dynasty based in Cairo.from: Multan, 20 March 2017.

Jalam bin Shayban, a proselytizing Da'i that had been dispatched to the region by the Fatimid Caliph Imam al-Mu'izz, was dispatched to replace the city's previous Da'i who had been accused of promoting a syncretic version of Islam that incorporated Hindu rites – though his replacement was likely the result of doctrinal differences regarding succession in the Ismaili Imamate.

Jalam bin Shayban, established newly converted Katara Rajputs as its rulers. During his era, Multan became a prosperous city, as witness by famous geographer and travelled Al-Al-Muqadassi in 985;

The people of Multan are Shi'a...... In Multan the Khutba is read in the name of the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt and the place is administered by his orders. Gifts are regularly sent from here to Egypt".

Multan is smaller than Mansurah in size. but has a large population. Fruits are not found in plenty.. yet they are sold cheaper.... like Siraf, Multan has wooden homes. There is no bad conduct and drunkenness here, and people convicted of these crimes are punished with death or by some heavy sentence. Business is fair and honest. Travellers are looked after well. . Most of the inhabitants are Arabs. They live by a river. The place in abounds vegetation and wealth. Trade flourishes here. Good manners and good living are noticed everywhere. The Government is just. Women of the town are modestly dressed with no make-up and hardly found talking to any one in the streets. The water is healthy and the standard of living high. There is happiness, well-being and culture here, Persian is understood. Profits of business are high. People are healthy, but the town is not clean. Houses are small. The climate is warm and arid. The people are of darkish complexion. In Multan, the coin is minted on the style of the Fatimid Egyptian coin, but the Qanhari coins are commonly used.

Ghaznavid Conquest

Soon after, Multan was attacked by the Ghaznavids, destabilizing the Ismaili state. Mahmud of Ghazna invaded Multan in 1005, conducting a series of campaigns.Virani, Shafique N. The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 100. The city was surrendered, and Abdul Fateh Daud was permitted to retain control over the city with some conditions. Mahmud appointed a Hindu-convert, Nawasa Khan, to rule the region in Mahmud's absentia. After being granted power, Niwasa Khan renounced Islam, and attempted to secure control of the region in collusion with Abdul Fateh Daud.

Mahmud of Ghazni then led another expedition to Multan in 1007 C.E. against Niwasa Khan, who was then captured and forced to relinquish his personal fortune to Ghazni.

In an effort to gain his allegiance, the Fatimid Ismaili Imam-caliph al-Hakim dispatched an envoy to Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi two years later. This attempt appeared to be unsuccessful and the Ghaznawids continued to attack other Ismaili strongholds in Sindh to suppress any resurgence of the community in the region. In 1032, Mahmud's very own vizier, Hasanak was executed for having accepted a cloak from the Imam-caliph on suspicions that he had become an adherent of the Ismaili fiqh.

Mahmud's purges of the region led several scholars including Stern to believe that the Ghaznawid purges of the region drove out Ismailism from the area, however, recently discovered letters dating to 1083 and 1088 demonstrate continued Ismaili activity in the region, as the Imam-caliph Mustansir dispatched new da’is to replace those who were killed in the attacks. Ismaili rulers of this era are as follows: Jalam B.Shayban (959–985), founded the emirate of Multan Shaykh Hamid (985–997), The Ghaznawid Amir Sabuktagin invaded Multan in 381/991 during his era, but later made a truce with Shaykh Hamid, as Isma'ili Multan served as a buffer-state between the rising Turkish power of Ghazna and the old Hindu rulers-the Imperial Pratiharas of Kanauj. Abu'l-Futuh Da'ud b. Nasr (997–1010), he was the grandson of Shaykh Hamid. In 1010, the Ghaznawid finally annexed Multan, took Abu'l-Fateh as prisoner. Abul Fateh died in a prison in Ghazna, and the emirate was abolished..

Conquest of Muhammad Ghori Like his predecessor, Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad of Ghor first took, in 1178, the Ismaili Multan sultans in northern Sindh, which had regained independence from Ghaznavid rule. Muhammad Ghori as a part of his campaigns to conquer north India, again massacred them.History of India and Pakistan: Great Mughals by Muhammad Tariq Awan published by Ferozsons, 1994

After Sultan Muhammad Ghori's victories in India, and his establishment of a capital in Delhi, Multan was made a part of his empire. However, the rise of the Mongols would again give it some independence, albeit requiring it to be vigilant against Mongol raids from Central Asia.

The Qarmatians came to Multan in the 10th century and were expelled in 1175 by Sultan Muhammad Ghori

Independent kingdom (1203–1228) Following the death of Sultan Muhammad Ghauri, Multan came under the rule of Nasiruddin Qabacha, who in 1222, successfully repulsed an attempted invasion by Sultan Jalal al-Din Mangburni of the Khwarazmian Empire, whose origins were rooted in modern-day Turkmenistan. Qabacha also repulsed a 40-day siege imposed on the city by Mongol forces who attempted to conquer the city. Following Qabacha's death that same year, the Turkic king Iltutmish, the third Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty, captured and then annexed Multan in an expedition. The Punjabi poet Baba Farid was born in the village of Khatwal near Multan in the 1200s.

Mamluk era