Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudoscientific and esoteric concepts initially developed in 1924 by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It was the first of the organic farming movements. It treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks, emphasising spiritual and mystical perspectives.
Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures and composts and excludes the use of synthetic (artificial) fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and soil as a single system, an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems, its use of traditional (and development of new) local breeds and varieties. Some methods use an astrological sowing and planting calendar.2015 Biodynamic Lunar and Planetary Calendar; Desmond Ansel Jolly, Isabella Kenfield, California's New Green Revolution: Pioneers in Sustainable Agriculture, University of California Small Farm Program 2008, p. 114; Carl F. Jordan, An Ecosystem Approach to Sustainable Agriculture, Springer 2013, p. 126; Arnaldo Walter and Pedro Gerber Machado, "Socio-Economic Impacts of Bioethanol from Sugarcane in Brazil", in Socio-Economic Impacts of Bioenergy Production Dominik Rutz, Rainer Janssen (eds.), Springer 2014 pp. 193–215. p. 208; Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Twenty-First Century Systems Agriculture, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council, Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century, National Academies Press 2010. p. 21 Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are prepared using methods that are more akin to sympathetic magic than agronomy, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow, which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil".
No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture is a pseudoscience as it lacks scientific evidence for its efficacy because of its reliance upon esoteric and mystical beliefs.
As of 2022, biodynamic techniques were used on 255,051 hectares in 65 countries, led by Germany, Italy and France. Germany accounts for 42% of the global total. The remainder average 1,750 ha per country. Biodynamic methods of cultivating grapevines have been taken up by several notable vineyards. There are certification agencies for biodynamic products, most of which are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International.
History Origin of a theory
Biodynamics was the first modern organic agriculture.Traditional agriculture employed organic practices in the absence of any alternative. Its development began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf Steiner at Schloss Koberwitz in Silesia, Germany (now Kobierzyce in Poland).Paull, John (2013) "Koberwitz (Kobierzyce); In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner'", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 109 (Autumn), pp. 7–11.Paull, John (2013) "Breslau (Wrocław): In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 110: 10–15. These lectures, the first known presentation of organic agriculture, were held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers.Diver, Steve (Feb 1999), "Biodynamic Farming & Compost Preparation" . The 111 attendees, fewer than half of whom were farmers, came from six countries, primarily Germany and Poland. The lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture Course.
Steiner emphasized that the methods he proposed should be tested experimentally. For this purpose, Steiner established a research group, the "Agricultural Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners of the General Anthroposophical Society".Paull, John (2013) A history of the organic agriculture movement in Australia. In: Bruno Mascitelli, and Antonio Lobo (Eds.) Organics in the Global Food Chain. Connor Court Publishing, Ballarat, ch.3, pp. 37–61. Between 1924 and 1939, this research group attracted about 800 members from around the world, including Europe, the Americas and Australasia. Another group, the "Association for Research in Anthroposophical Agriculture" (Versuchsring anthroposophischer Landwirte), directed by the German agronomist Erhard Bartsch, was formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil, plants and animals; the group published a monthly journal, Demeter. Bartsch was also instrumental in developing a sales organisation for biodynamic products, Demeter, which still exists today. The Research Association was renamed the Imperial Association for Biodynamic Agriculture (Reichsverband für biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise) in 1933. It was dissolved by the National Socialist regime in 1941. In 1931 the association had 250 members in Germany, 109 in Switzerland, 104 in other European countries and 24 outside Europe. The oldest biodynamic farms are the Wurzerhof in Austria and Marienhöhe in Germany.Herbert Koepf and Bodo von Plato "Die biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise im 20.Jahrhundert", Dornach, 2001
In 1938, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer's text, Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening, was published in five languages – English, Dutch, Italian, French, and German; this became the standard work in the field for several decades. The following year Pfeiffer's book was published in Danish by Carl Vett.Paull, John, Tutturen, Tord & Halberg, Simon (2025). Carl Vett (1871-1956): Denmark's Pioneer of Biodynamic Farming and Organic Agriculture. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 12 (8), pp. 1-25. In July 1939, at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne, Pfeiffer travelled to the UK and presented the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent.Paull, John (2011) "The Betteshanger Summer School: Missing link between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming", Journal of Organic Systems, 6(2):13–26. The conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming because, in the year after Betteshanger, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land, in which he coined the term 'organic farming' and praised the methods of Rudolf Steiner. In the 1950s, Hans Mueller was encouraged by Steiner's work to create the organic-biological farming method in Switzerland; this later developed to become the largest certifier of organic products in Europe, Bioland.
Geographic developments
Today biodynamics is practised in more than 50 countries worldwide and in a variety of circumstances, ranging from temperate arable farming, viticulture in France, cotton production in Egypt, to silkworm breeding in China.Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing Demeter International is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods. In 2020 Demeter International and the International Biodynamic Association joined to become the Biodynamic Federation – Demeter International. In the United States, biodynamic farming dates from 1926.Paull, John (2019) The Pioneers of Biodynamics in USA: The Early Milestones of Organic Agriculture in the United States, American Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 6(2):89–94. From 1926 through to 1938, 39 farmers and gardeners in the US pursued biodynamic practices. The Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New York state corporation. In Great Britain, biodynamic farming dates from 1927.Paull, John (2019) The Pioneers of Biodynamics in Great Britain: From Anthroposophic Farming to Organic Agriculture (1924–1940), Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development, 5(4): 138–145. In 1928 the Anthroposophical Agricultural Foundation was founded in England; this is now called the Biodynamic Agriculture Association. In 1939, Britain's first biodynamic agriculture conference, the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, was held at Lord Northbourne's farm in Kent; Ehrenfried Pfeiffer was the lead presenter. In Australia, the first biodynamic farmer was Ernesto GenoniPaull, John (2015) "Ernesto Genoni: Artist, Pacifist, Anthroposophist", Uriel Lecture, Christian Community, Hawthorn, pp. 1–67. who in 1928 joined the Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners, followed soon after by his brother Emilio Genoni.Paull, John (2014) "Ernesto Genoni: Australia's pioneer of biodynamic agriculture", Journal of Organics, 1(1):57–81. Ernesto Genoni's first biodynamic farm was at Dalmore, in Gippsland, Victoria, in 1933.Paull, John (2019) Dalmore Farm: Victoria's first biodynamic farming venture (1933–1934), Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 131: 26–31. The following year, Ileen Macpherson and Ernesto Genoni founded Demeter Biological Farm at Dandenong, Victoria, in 1934 and it was farmed using biodynamic principles for over two decades.Paull, John (2017) Ileen Macpherson: Life and tragedy of a pioneer of biodynamic farming at Demeter Farm and a benefactor of Anthroposophy in Australia, Journal of Organics, 4(1):29–56. Bob Williams presented the first public lecture in Australia on biodynamic agriculture on 26 June 1938 at the home of the architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin at Castlecrag, Sydney.Paull, John (2012) "Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin, Architects of Anthroposophy", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 106: 20–30. Since the 1950s research work has continued at the Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI) in Powelltown, near Melbourne under the direction of Alex Podolinsky. In 1989 Biodynamic Agriculture Australia was established, as a not for profit association. In France the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was formed in 1972 with five founding members, one of which was the Swedish Biodynamic Association.Paull, John (2010) "From France to the World: The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)" , Journal of Social Research & Policy, 1(2):93–102. The University of Kassel had a Department of Biodynamic Agriculture from 2006 to March 2011.Biodynamic Agriculture Dept. of the University of Kassel Emerson College (UK) was founded in 1962 and named after Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet and transcendentalist. Since then it has held courses inspired by the philosophy and teachings of Rudolf Steiner, including on biodynamic agriculture. In Canada, there are currently three biodynamic organisations, The Society for Biodynamic Farming and Gardening in Ontario, The Biodynamic Agricultural Society of British Columbia and the Association de Biodynamie du Québec that are members of Demeter Canada.
Biodynamic method of farming