The is a series of ancient pilgrimage routes that crisscross the Kii Peninsula, the largest peninsula of Japan. These mountainous trails are used by pilgrims to the "Kumano Sanzan" (熊野三山) - the Three Grand Shrines of Kumano: Kumano Hongū Taisha (熊野本宮大社), Kumano Nachi Taisha (熊野那智大社) and Kumano Hayatama Taisha (熊野速玉大社). These three shrines are the holiest sites of the ancient syncretic Kumano religion.
It has been visited by pilgrims seeking healing and salvation as a site of religious significance for over a thousand years. People with backgrounds from peasants to emperors would visit the region while guided by Shugendō monks.
In July 2004, some of the roads of the Kumano Kodō and the shrines of the Kumano Sanzan, along with Koyasan and Yoshino and Ōmine, were registered as World Heritage sites together as the "Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range".
History The Kumano Kodō has been used for more than 1,000 years for the purpose of Kumano worship, which flourished as the largest sacred site in Japan during the Middle Ages.例えば、かつて十津川街道として知られていたルートは国道168号線に吸収されている。紀伊路（大阪-田辺）が登録外であるのも、県道や登山道などとして改修・拡幅されたことによる。なお、世界遺産に登録されたルートでも、大辺路・伊勢路の大部分は国道42号線と重複している。 In modern times, after its status as Japan's largest sacred site was replaced by that of Ise Shrine, it began to become part of the pilgrimages of the 33 sacred sites of the Kannon in the western part of Japan. Nevertheless, the Kumano Kodō remains as a busy foot pilgrimage in its own right.並行している例として、中辺路と国道311号線、JR紀勢本線・国道42号線の紀伊半島部分と大辺路・伊勢路がある。また、小辺路や大峯奥駈道のような例外もある。
The area around Kumano was a place of nature worship, as mentioned in the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan). The three Kumano mountains were worshipped by people from all walks of life, from emperors to aristocrats and commoners.
In the Muromachi period (1333-1573), Kumano pilgrimages became popular among samurai and common people and not just aristocrats, and were so frequent and continuous that they were even called a "pilgrimage of ants".
In the Edo period (1603-1867), Kumano pilgrimages, along with Ise pilgrimages, are said to have become widely practiced by the general public. At one time, 800 people were recorded to have stayed overnight in inns near Kumano in a single day.
The number of shrines around the Kumano Kodō was drastically reduced due to the "Shrine Combining Order" issued at the end of 1906 (Meiji 39) as part of the Meiji Restoration. This order saw Buddhist and Shinto shrines separated and Buddhist elements destroyed, while many natural sites which had been preserved by the shrines were also destroyed. Some of these natural sites were protected by the pioneering work of ecologist Minakata Kumagusu who extensively studied and fought for the protection of the ecosystems of the region.
The Kumano Kodō itself continued to be used as a road for daily life until the national highway was constructed from the Taisho era (1912-1926) to the Showa era (1926-1989).
Until recent decades, the custom of Kumano pilgrimages had almost disappeared. Currently, the Wakayama Prefectural Tourism Promotion Division is playing a central role in developing the routes and making it a tourist attraction by organizing stamp rallies and other events.
In September 2011, many people died and infrastructure and geology in the area was heavily damaged by landslides and flooding caused by Tropical Storm Talas (Typhoon #12). As of 2023, there are parts of the routes still to be repaired. However, there have also been substantial investments in new tourist infrastructure such as an art museum in Chikatsuyu and large tourist centres and displays in towns along the route.
Imperial pilgrimages
The first imperial visit to the area is said to have been the Kumano Gokou by Emperor Uda in 908 during the mid-Heian period. The term Kumano Gokou (熊野御幸) refers to the emperor's pilgrimage to Kumano, which took place 94 times over a period of 374 years until the Kumano Gokou of Emperor Kameyama in 1281.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, the retired emperors of the Insei period began to make repeated pilgrimages to Kumano. It is said that the beginning of frequent pilgrimages to the three Kumano mountains began with the retired Emperor Shirakawa's Kumano Gokou in 1090. In total, Emperor Shirakawa made nine visits to Kumano. This led to an upsurge in the number of empresses and other court ladies and nobles accompanying the emperor and the Cloistered Emperor, and later to independent Kumano pilgrimages among the Kyoto nobility. Later, Emperor Go-Shirakawa also made 33 visits to Kumano.
According to the diary of Fujiwara no Teika, who accompanied Emperor Go-Toba on his Kumano pilgrimage in 1201 during the Kamakura period (1185-1333), the journey was made on foot in principle, with luggage carried on horseback, and the roads were maintained accordingly. During this period, the shrine was worshipped by the Minamoto and Taira clans, and was visited by Ippen and Mongaku, priests of the Heian and Kamakura periods. Hojo Masako, wife of Minamoto no Yoritomo, also made two pilgrimages to Kumano on her way to Kyoto from Kamakura. Furthermore, after the Jokyu Disturbance (1221), local samurai also began to make pilgrimages.
Kumano Sanzan
The three shrines which enshrine each of the Kumano Gongen are the guiding destinations of the pilgrimage. The shrines are visited today by visitors travelling via car, bus, and on foot.
Kumano faith
The Kumano Gongen are the deities that are revered by the Kumano faith. As a syncretic religion, the Kumano faith carries elements of Shinto, Shugendo, mountain worship, and Buddhism, among others, and is sacred to each of these religions. They are themselves seen as aspects of their respective Shinto and Buddhist deities. They are embodied in natural wonders - Nachi Falls, a giant boulder at Mount Gongenyama, and the sacred Kumano River. The gods are said to have descended to Earth at a rock at the summit of Mount Gongenyama, which is adjacent to Shingu. As the faith was proselytized throughout Japan, hundreds of local shrines were created to worship the Kumano gods. The faith was offered as one that is open to people from any background, especially to women who were banned from other sacred sites in Japan. Local shrines allowed the devout to worship the Kumano faith without having to take the extremely arduous journey to the Kumano Sanzan.
The completion of the pilgrimage is said to automatically grant entrance into the bodhisattva of compassion Kannon's pure land upon death. The holy land of the Kumano region increases in sacredness until reaching the epicentre at Hongu. The region itself can be seen as the land of the dead, or a pure land on Earth. For Shugendo practitioners, walking the routes through the sacred mountains form and reinforce sacred mandalas. +Table showing the syncretism of the Kumano deitiesGrand ShrineBuddhist deityShinto kamiKumano deityNatural objectHonguAmidaSusano-no-MikotoKetsumiko-no-OkamiTrees, Kumano-gawa River, Hongu sandbank, natureHayatamaYakushiIzanagi-no-Mikoto Izanami-no-MikotoKumano-Hayatama-no-Okami Kumano-Fusumi-no-OkamiGotobiki-iwa rock (at Kamikura Shrine, Shingu), Kumano-gawa RiverNachiSenju KannonIzanami-no-MikotoKumano-Fusumi-no-OkamiNachi Falls
Buddhist elements The Kumano Gongen are similar to many other gods in Japan, in that they are understood by Buddhists, under the principle of honji suijaku, to be incarnations of buddhas and bodhisattvas. In fact, the word gongen means a buddha manifesting as a kami. There are many Buddhist elements throughout the Kumano Kodo, including hundreds of small Jizo and Kannon statues on the routes, the Kohechi route to the Buddhist centre of Koyasan, the belief in the Kumano region as a pure land, and the co-existence of Buddhist temples within the grand shrine precincts (such as Seiganto-ji). There are many important Buddhist sites along the routes, including mounds with stupas on top where Buddhist scriptures were buried in order to preserve them and obtain merit for the preserver.
Shugendo elements Shugendo monks (Yamabushi) have served as guides on the trail since ancient times and form an integral part of the religion of the area. Mount Tamaki and Mount Ōmine are just two of the sacred mountains with significant Shugendo presence in the region.
Shinto elements
Shinto shrines (jinja) are extremely common throughout the region and on the trails. Some of the most common shrines in the region hold the gods Susano, Amaterasu and Inari. There are also many shrines that contain local kami, and kami that inhabit natural features. Some of these shrines hold the spirits of Imperial officials and warriors, or have stories pertaining to imperial pilgrimages.
The pilgrimage became popular among boatbuilders and fishermen as it is said to be where Susano created the first boat after witnessing a drowning spider climb onto a leaf.
The Kumano Gongen are also understood as manifestations of Shinto deities, in the same way that the Buddhist deities are. This is an example of shinbutsu-shūgō, or Buddhist-Shinto syncretism.
There are also many yokai said to inhabit the region. Among these are the daru spirits, serpentine witch beings who can turn invisible and penetrate a pilgrim's body to apply physical torments.
Yatagarasu
Yagarasu, the three-legged crow, is a ubiquitous symbol of the Kumano region. They have a dedicated shrine at the Kumano Nachii Taisha complex. This crow god is said to have been sent from heaven as a guide for legendary Emperor Jimmu on his last climactic battle to become the first Japanese Emperor; together they travelled from Shingu in the Kumano region to what would become Yamato. Crows are depicted on the sacred Gyuoh Hoin (熊野牛王符) amulets and omamori available at the shrines.
Kōshin
While not as popular today, the ancient Kōshin religion persists along the Kumano Kodo in the form of monuments and shrines. One of the central features of this religion is the belief that three parasites live in the human body and will ascend to heaven once a month to report the person's sins. As this occurred at night, it became custom to stay awake and revel all night on this day each month.
Oji shrines
The 99 'princes' are shrines which were established mainly from the 12th to 13th centuries. These are found from Watanobe-tsu (Kubotsu, Kuhonetsu) at the mouth of the Yodo River, which was the base of the Kumano Kodō (especially Kii-ji and Nakabe-ji) in Osaka, to the Kumano Sanzan (three mountains). Pilgrims walked to the Kumano Sanzan, resting at the 99 Oji shrines. Few of them still exist today in their original condition.
Routes There are many routes that make up the broader Kumano Kodō pilgrimage. Not all of these routes are intended to be traversed in one trip, as they originate from different locations, and some lesser known routes are not in use. Additionally, not all of the routes have World Heritage status either.
The name Kumano Kodō today primarily refers to the following six main roads:
Kiiji (Watanobe-tsu - Tanabe) Kohechi (Koyasan - Kumano Sanzan, approx. 70 km) Nakahechi (Tanabe - Kumano Sanzan) Ohechi (Tanabe - Kushimoto - Kumano Sanzan, approx. 120 km) Iseji (Ise Jingu - Kumano Sanzan, approx. 160 km) Omine Okugakemichi (Yoshino - Kumano Sanzan).
Kiiji The Kiiji route runs along the west coast of the peninsula from Kyoto to Tanabe, where it forks into two more routes: Nakahechi; and Ohechi. The Kiiji route was frequented by the emperors as they travelled many times throughout their lives from the imperial capital of Kyoto. Today, the majority of the Kiiji route is paved roads and rural and urban areas that show little resemblance to the past. It is not part of the World Heritage listing.
Ohechi