Circular migration or repeat migration is the temporary and usually repetitive movement of a migrant worker between home and host areas, typically for the purpose of employment. It represents an established pattern of population mobility, whether cross-country or rural-urban. There are several benefits associated with this migration pattern, including gains in financial capital, human capital, and social capital. There are also costs associated with circular migration, such as brain drain, poor working conditions, forced labor, and the inability to transfer acquired skills to home economies. Socially, there are strong connections to gender, health outcomes, development, poverty, and global immigration policy.
Overview Definition
The term "circular migration" describes the fluid movement of people between areas, usually for the purpose of employment.International Organization for Migration. 2008. World Migration 2008: Managing Labor Mobility in the Evolving Global Economy. IOM World Migration Report Series. Volume 4. Geneva: IOM. The term itself first came into use in the 1960s and 1970s, mostly related to urbanization, development, and internal migration. There are six criteria that define migration as being circular: Temporary Renewable Circulatory Legal Respectful of the migrants’ rights Managed so as to optimize labor markets for both origin and destination countries
Current migration policy rarely takes into account circular migration and instead mainly focuses on the dichotomous concepts of "permanent" and "temporary".O'Neil, K. (2003). Summary Report: “Discussion on Migration and Development Using Remittances and Circular Migration as Drivers for Development Washington DC: Migration Policy Institute. In contrast to temporary migration, circular migration allows the worker to simultaneously be engaged with both the home and host countries. Furthermore, it typically involves both return to the country of origin and repeated moves to the destination country. In many ways, being connected to both places provides an advantage for the migrant worker, because they do not have to make a definitive choice to stay in one.Newland, Kathleen (2009). Circular Migration and Human Development. Human Development Research Paper (HDRP) Series, Vol. 42. Retrieved 2019-08-10. This allows for the maximization of capabilities, a concept articulated by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. By working in a high-income location with better earnings and spending in low-income, low-cost countries, the migrant worker is able to realize the best capabilities for both themselves and their families.Graeme Hugo (2003). "Circular migration: Keeping development rolling?", Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute. See also in the case of German Unification Hans-Werner Sinn (1992). "Jumpstart. The Economic Unification of Germany." MIT Press: Cambridge, Mass., and London 1992 and "The New Systems Competition." Yrjö Jahnsson Lectures, Basil Blackwell: Oxford 2003. Circularity also allows for the maintenance of traditions, citizenship, and family, an important part of human capabilities.
The circular patterns of migration can be divided into several categories: seasonal migration, non-seasonal low-wage labor, and the movement of professionals, academics, and transnational entrepreneurs. Of these, seasonal migration is the most familiar between high-income and low-income countries. Although it is mostly related to the agricultural sector, in can also apply to other industries that vary by season, such as tourism, landscaping, and construction.
Determinants Work is an important factor in determining the duration and frequency of the migration. The circular nature allows for a migrant worker to take advantage of employment opportunities in both the origin and destination countries, as they become available. The economy and job opportunities of the location of origin are often an important determinant of migration. In addition, circular migration is influenced by labor market segmentation, because the working populations in many high-income countries are less likely to be employed in low-wage and low-status jobs, instead leaving these positions to migrants. Employers often look for the cheapest labor in areas with little connection to the potential destination markets, and this expanding labor frontier is slowly linking the most rural of areas with urban centers. Furthermore, the variety of occupations in the international labor market has increased. For example, in many middle-income countries, migrants provide much of the labor in the agricultural, construction, and domestic service industries.
Several factors may determine the extent to which circular migration is impactful upon the return of the migrant. Firstly, the size of the returning population is important, as large numbers of migrants may form a critical mass necessary for true change to occur. Secondly, the duration of the absence of the migrants is influential, as too short of an absence brings little change and too long of an absence leads to difficulties in readjustment. Thirdly, it is important to consider social class, as the elite may have a greater impact than unskilled workers. Fourth, the extent to which the origin and destination areas are different can have an effect, as those who migrate to metropolitan areas will have a greater impact if returning to an urban rather than a rural area. Lastly, the quantity and quality of the skills that the migrant acquires while abroad can determine the impact of migration.
Not everyone is able to maintain transnational lives. Those who have secure residential status in both the home and the host countries can better travel between them without concern for legal status.Vadean, F., & Piracha, M. 2009. Circular migration or permanent return: What determines different forms of migration?. In terms of who migrates, circular migrant workers are more likely to be male, have primary education, and come from more rural and less developed areas. Education, gender, age, and the reasons for return from the first migration all affect the choice of migration form. In addition, circular migration rates are high among the poor.
Promoting factors There are several factors that promote circular migration. Modern forms of transport and communication, increased social networks, and the growth of international corporations all contribute to the growing phenomena. Advances in transportation have reduced the time and money necessary to travel between locations, making it easier for migrants to return home more frequently and in the case of an emergency. New methods of communication facilitate closer connections with the migrants’ homes than before. Border-crossing social networks are especially important to the success of migrants. Through these networks, migrants are able to help each other by providing information about where to go, the best way to get jobs, where to live, etc., helping them to overcome many of the costs and barriers of entry. Furthermore, through these social networks, workers are able to keep up with families, economic activities, political interests, and individual cultures. This also contributes to the self-perpetuating nature of circular migration. With each return visit, migrants learn more about work, housing, and the process of migration itself. These social relationships and experiences, referred to as "migration-specific capital", lower the risk and costs of moving and improve the changes of success.
Benefits
Triple-win The concept of circular migration has been described as a triple-win scenario, providing benefits for the host country, the home country, and the migrants themselves. Developed countries allow migrants to enter in order to fill labor shortages, but with the understanding that the settlement is not permanent, distinguishing it from immigration. Developing countries benefit in the sense that they are not truly losing their skilled migrants, as these workers will return after a period of time to continue working. The migrants themselves benefit through the skills they learn abroad, as well as their increase in wages. The form of benefits in this triple-win discourse often take three forms: financial capital, human capital, and social capital. Circularity is the most beneficial whenever migrants move voluntary between locations in the pursuit of different interests, as well as when migrants have positive experiences while abroad, including financial and educational success.
Financial capital Financial capital is mostly earned through remittances. Remittances are the transnational exchange of funds earned by migrants working abroad. In recent years, they have become an important global economic resource. In the 1990s, the estimated value of remittances doubled to over $105 billion each year. The United Nations estimates that the annual figure is around $232 billion, but the unofficial flow is unknown; it is possible that more than half of the remittances earned go unrecorded each year. Remittances vary in the channels used to transfer money, the amount transferred, and the manner in which the money is invested, saved, and consumed. There is evidence that circular migrants are able to send back greater remittances than permanent migrants.
Human capital Human capital mostly involves the flow of skilled labor. Host countries view the circular migration of highly skilled and educated migrants as positive, while low-skilled labor is often viewed more negatively. Circular migration also allows for the international mobility of labor for shortages in specific sectors in developed countries with the surpluses present in developing countries. The skills that workers acquire while abroad may then benefit the home country upon return. Origin countries seek to increase their access to the labor markets of wealthier countries in hopes of reducing unemployment, increasing remittances, and retaining access to skilled nationals who work abroad. The networks that these skilled laborers establish can greatly benefit the home country, contributing to the social capital. Social capital also involves social remittances, non-material entities such as ideas and practices learned.
While the loss of skilled labor represents a potential cost for countries of origin, it can also at times be beneficial. For instance, if there is no room in the economy of the home country to use the skilled labor, then it is better for the workers to migrate and send back remittances. When these remittances are greater than what the migrant would have made in the home country, it is also beneficial. Another example is when the migrants return with new skills, knowledge, and capacities. Lastly, the movement of skilled labor is beneficial for the country of origin when migrants forge strong economic connections between the home and host country.
Costs
Brain drain