Simeon I the Great (; This article uses the United Nations-authorized scientific transliteration system to romanize Bulgarian Cyrillic. For details, see Romanization of Bulgarian. ; ) was the ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire from 893 until his death in 927.Lalkov, Rulers of Bulgaria, pp. 23–25. Simeon's successful campaigns against the Byzantines, Magyars and Serbs led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion ever, making it the most powerful state in contemporary Eastern and Southeast Europe. His reign was also a period of unmatched cultural prosperity and enlightenment later deemed the Golden Age of Bulgarian culture.

During Simeon's rule, Bulgaria spread over a territory between the Aegean, the Adriatic and the Black seas.Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki". The newly independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church became the first new patriarchate besides the Pentarchy, and Bulgarian Glagolitic and Cyrillic translations of Christian texts spread all over the Slavic world of the time. It was at the Preslav Literary School in the 890s that the Cyrillic alphabet was developed.Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks, Florin Curta, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 221–222., The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Oxford History of the Christian Church, J. M. Hussey, Andrew Louth, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 100., Halfway through his reign, Simeon assumed the title of "emperor" (Tsar),"Цѣсарь Блъгарѡмъ". Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 367. having prior to that been styled "prince" (Knyaz).Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 280.

Background and early life Simeon was born in 864 or 865, as the third son of Knyaz Boris I of Krum's dynasty. As Boris was the ruler who Christianized Bulgaria in 865, Simeon was a Christian all his life.Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132. Because his eldest brother Vladimir was designated heir to the Bulgarian throne, Boris intended Simeon to become a high-ranking cleric,Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon. possibly Bulgarian archbishop, and sent him to the University of Constantinople to receive theological education when he was thirteen or fourteen. He took the name Simeon"From the Greek form of the Hebrew name שִׁמְעוֹן (Shim'on) which meant "hearkening" or "listening"." as a novice in a monastery in Constantinople. During the decade (ca. 878–888) he spent in the Byzantine capital, he received an excellent education and studied the rhetoric of Demosthenes and Aristotle."Hunc etenim Simeonem emiargon, id est semigrecum, esse aiebant, eo quod a puericia Bizantii Demostenis rhetoricam Aristotelisque sillogismos didicerit". Liutprand of Cremona. Antapodosis, cap. 29, p. 66. Cited in He also learned fluent Greek, to the extent that he was referred to as "the half-Greek" in Byzantine chronicles.Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132. * Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon. * Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 282. He is speculated to have been tutored by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople,Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 281. but this is not supported by any source.

Around 888, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and settled at the newly established royal monastery of Preslav "at the mouth of the Tiča",This is not to be understood literally, as the mouth of the Tiča lies to the east, on the Black Sea coast. Researchers link the word ustie ('river mouth') in the sources to a narrow section of the river or to the Ustie pass near the city. where, under the guidance of Naum of Preslav, he engaged in active translation of important religious works from Greek to Medieval Bulgarian (currently referred to as Church Slavonic), aided by other students from Constantinople. Meanwhile, Vladimir had succeeded Boris, who had retreated to a monastery, as ruler of Bulgaria. Vladimir attempted to reintroduce paganism in the empire and possibly signed an anti-Byzantine pact with Arnulf of Carinthia,Annales Fuldenses, p. 408. Cited in Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 133. compelling Boris to re-enter political life. Boris had Vladimir imprisoned and blinded, and then appointed Simeon as the new ruler.. * Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 283. This was done at an assembly in Preslav which also proclaimed Bulgarian as the only language of state and church and moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to Preslav, to better cement the recent conversion. It is not known why Boris did not place his second son, Gavril, on the throne, but instead preferred Simeon.

Reign

Trade war with Byzantium and Magyar invasions

With Simeon on the throne, the long-lasting peace with the Byzantine Empire established by his father was about to end. A conflict arose when Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise, allegedly acting under pressure from his mistress Zoe Zaoutzaina and her father Stylianos Zaoutzes, moved the marketplace for Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessaloniki, where the Bulgarian merchants were heavily taxed. The Bulgarians sought protection by Simeon, who in turn complained to Leo. However, the Byzantine emperor ignored his embassy.John Skylitzes. Skylitzes–Kedrenos, II, p. 254.4–16Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 144–145.

Unable to effectively respond to the Bulgarian campaign due to the engagement of their forces against the Arabs, the Byzantines convinced the Magyars to attack Bulgaria, promising to transport them across the Danube using the Byzantine navy.Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 198.Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 145. Leo VI may have also concluded an agreement with Arnulf to make sure that the Franks did not support Simeon against the Magyars.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 294–295. In addition, the talented commander Nikephoros Phokas was called back from southern Italy to lead a separate army against Bulgaria in 895 with the intention to merely overawe the Bulgarians.Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 146. Simeon, unaware of the threat from the north, rushed to meet Phokas' forces, but the two armies did not engage in a fight.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 295. Instead, the Byzantines offered peace, informing him of both the Byzantine foot and maritime campaign, but intentionally did not notify him of the planned Magyar attack. Simeon did not trust the envoy and, after sending him to prison, ordered the Byzantine navy's route into the Danube closed off with ropes and chains, intending to hold it until he had dealt with Phokas.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 296–297.

Despite the problems they encountered because of the fencing, the Byzantines ultimately managed to ferry the Magyar forces led by Árpád's son Liüntika across the Danube,Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 297. possibly near modern Galaţi,According to toponymic evidence. and assisted them in pillaging the nearby Bulgarian lands. Once notified of the surprise invasion, Simeon headed north to stop the Magyars, leaving some of his troops at the southern border to prevent an attack by Phokas.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 298–299. Simeon's two encounters with the enemy in northern Dobruja resulted in Magyar victories, forcing him to retreat to Drǎstǎr.Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199. After pillaging much of Bulgaria and reaching Preslav, the Magyars returned to their lands,Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".* Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon. * Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199. but not before Simeon had concluded an armistice with Byzantium towards the summer of 895. A complete peace was delayed, as Leo VI required the release of the Byzantine captives from the trade war.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 301–304.

Anti-Magyar campaign and further wars with Byzantium

Having dealt with the pressure from the Magyars and the Byzantines, Simeon was free to plan a campaign against the Magyars looking for retribution. He negotiated a joint force with the Magyars' eastern neighbours, the Pechenegs, and imprisoned the Byzantine envoy Leo Choirosphaktes in order to delay the release of the captives until after the campaign against the Magyars.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 304. This would allow him to renegotiate the peace conditions in his favour. In an exchange of letters with the envoy, Simeon refused to release the captives and ridiculed Leo VI's astrological abilities.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 304–311.

Using a Magyar invasion in the lands of the neighbouring Slavs in 896 as a casus belli, Simeon headed against the Magyars together with his Pecheneg allies, defeating them completelyRunciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 147. in the Battle of Southern Buh and making them leave Etelköz forever and settle in Pannonia. Following the defeat of the Magyars, Simeon finally released the Byzantine prisoners in exchange for Bulgarians captured in 895.

Claiming that not all prisoners had been released, Simeon once again invaded Byzantium in the summer of 896, heading directly to Constantinople.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 315. He was met in Thrace by a hastily assembled Byzantine army, but annihilated the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Bulgarophygon (at modern Babaeski, Turkey).Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 316. Arming Arab captives and sending them to fight with the Bulgarians as a desperate measure, Leo VI managed to repel the Bulgarians from Constantinople, which they had besieged.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 317. The war ended with a peace treaty which formally lasted until around Leo VI's death in 912 and under which Byzantium was obliged to pay Bulgaria an annual tribute.Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 148. Under the treaty, the Byzantines also ceded an area between the Black Sea and Strandža to the Bulgarian Empire.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 318–321. Meanwhile, Simeon had also imposed his authority over Serbia in return for recognizing Petar Gojniković as their ruler.Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 141.

Simeon often violated the peace treaty with Byzantium, attacking and conquering Byzantine territory on several occasions,Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 321. such as in 904, when the Bulgarian raids were used by Arabs led by the Byzantine renegade Leo of Tripoli to undertake a maritime campaign and seize Thessaloniki.Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 324. After the Arabs plundered the city, it was an easy target for Bulgaria and the nearby Slavic tribes. In order to dissuade Simeon from capturing the city and populating it with Slavs,Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 152. Leo VI was forced to make further territorial concessions to the Bulgarians in the modern region of Macedonia. With the treaty of 904, all Slavic-inhabited lands in modern southern Macedonia and southern Albania were ceded to the Bulgarian Empire,Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 334–337. with the border line running some 20 kilometres north of Thessaloniki."In the year 6412 since the creation of the world, indict 7 (904). Border between Byzantines and Bulgarians. In the time of Simeon, by the grace of God Prince of the Bulgarians, under Olgu Tarkan Theodore and under Komit Drista." Border marking inscription from Narǎš (modern Greece).

Recognition as emperor