Mention of alcoholic beverages appears in the Hebrew Bible, after Noah planted a vineyard and became inebriated. In the New Testament, Jesus miraculously made copious amounts of wineSix pots of thirty-nine litres each = 234 liters = 61.8 gallons, according to Seesemann, p. 163. at the wedding at Cana (John 2). Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a source of symbolism, and was an important part of daily life in biblical times.B. S. Easton (1915b).Broshi (1984), p. 33.Broshi (1986), p. 46: "In the biblical description of the agricultural products of the Land, the triad 'cereal, wine, and oil' recurs repeatedly ( and elsewhere). These were the main products of ancient Palestine, in order of importance. The fruit of the vine was consumed both fresh and dried (raisins), but it was primarily consumed as wine. Wine was, in antiquity, an important food and not just an embellishment to a feast.... Wine was essentially a man's drink in antiquity, when it became a significant dietary component. Even slaves were given a generous wine ration. Scholars estimate that in ancient Rome an adult consumed a liter of wine daily. Even a minimal estimate of 700g. per day means that wine constituted about one quarter of the caloric intake (600 out of 2,500 cal.) and about one third of the minimum required intake of iron." Additionally, the inhabitants of ancient Israel drank beer and wines made from fruits other than grapes, and references to these appear in scripture.Waltke (2005), p. 505. However, the alcohol content of ancient alcoholic beverages was significantly lower than modern alcoholic beverages. The low alcohol content was due to the limitations of fermentation and the nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world. Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, and prohibited undiluted wine.
In the early 19th century the temperance movement began. Evangelical Christians became prominent in this movement, and while previously almost all Christians had a much more relaxed attitude to alcohol, today many evangelical Christians abstain from alcohol. Bible verses would be interpreted in a way that encouraged abstinence, for example , which states, "You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons too..."
Historically, however, the main Christian interpretation of biblical literature displays an ambivalence toward drinks that can be intoxicating, considering them both a blessing from God that brings joy and merriment and potentially dangerous beverages that can be sinfully abused.Waltke (2005), p. 127.Fitzsimmonds, p. 1255: "These two aspects of wine, its use and its abuse, its benefits and its curse, its acceptance in God's sight and its abhorrence, are interwoven into the fabric of the [Old Testament] so that it may gladden the heart of man (Ps. 104:15) or cause his mind to err (Is. 28:7), it can be associated with merriment (Ec. 10:19) or with anger (Is. 5:11), it can be used to uncover the shame of Noah (Gn. 9:21) or in the hands of Melchizedek to honor Abraham (Gn. 14:18).... The references [to drinks that can contain alcohol] in the [New Testament] are very much fewer in number, but once more the good and the bad aspects are equally apparent...."Raymond, p. 25: "This favorable view [of wine in the Bible], however, is balanced by an unfavorable estimate.... The reason for the presence of these two conflicting opinions on the nature of wine [is that the] consequences of wine drinking follow its use and not its nature. Happy results ensue when it is drunk in its proper measure and evil results when it is drunk to excess. The nature of wine is indifferent."McClintock and Strong, p. 1016: "But while liberty to use wine, as well as every other earthly blessing, is conceded and maintained in the Bible, yet all abuse of it is solemnly condemned." The relationships between Judaism and alcohol and Christianity and alcohol have generally maintained this same tension, though some modern Christian sects, particularly American Protestant groups around the time of Prohibition, have rejected alcohol as evil. The original versions of the books of the Bible use several different words for alcoholic beverages: at least 10 in Hebrew, and five in Greek. Drunkenness is discouraged and occasionally portrayed, and some biblical persons abstained from alcohol. Wine is used symbolically, in both positive and negative terms. Its consumption is prescribed for religious rites or medicinal uses in some places.
Lexigraphy Biblical literature uses several words in its original languages to refer to different types of alcoholic beverages. Some of these words have overlapping meaning, particularly the words in the Hebrew language compared to the words in Koine Greek, the language of both the Septuagint and the New Testament. While some deuterocanonical books may have been originally written in Hebrew or the Aramaic language, some were written in Greek. Hence, the meanings of the words used for alcoholic beverages in each of these languages has bearing on alcohol in the Bible.
Hebrew The Hebrew Bible was largely written in Biblical Hebrew, with portions in Biblical Aramaic, and has an important Ancient Greek translation called the Septuagint. The modern Hebrew Bible, which generally follows the Masoretic Text, uses several words to represent alcoholic beverages:
Hebrew Transliteration Strong's no. Instances in OTBiblical appearances MeaningAll meanings from Brown et al. Specific links are given in the "Strong's no." column. Greek equivalent(s)ייןyayin3196140the common word translated "wine"M. G. Easton (1897b).oinos (see below), gleukos (see below).תירושtirosh849238properly "must"; sometimes rendered as "wine," "new wine," or "sweet wine." It can represent juice at any stage in the fermentation process, and in some places it "represents rather wine made from the first drippings of the juice before the winepress was trodden. As such it would be particularly potent."Fitzsimmonds, p. 1254. oinos (most references; see below),All references from Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 366 (appendix). methusma (once; see below)שכרshekar794123"strong drink"; "denotes any inebriating drink with about 7–10 percent alcoholic content, not hard liquor, because there is no evidence of distilled liquor in ancient times.... It was made from either fruit and/or barley beer"; the term can include wine, but generally it is used in combination with it ("wine and strong drink") to encompass all varieties of intoxicantsEdwards (1915a).sikera (see below),All references from Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 358 (appendix). methê ("strong drink, drunkenness"),Entry for methê in Liddell et al. methusma (see below), oinos (see below)חמרchemer, corresponding to the Aramaic chamar2561, 25627"wine"; the word "conveys the idea of 'foaming,' as in the process of fermentation, or when poured out. It is derived from the root hamar, meaning 'to boil up'"oinos (see below),All references from Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 260 (appendix). methê ("strong drink, drunkenness")עסיס'asis60715"sweet wine" or "new wine", the vintage of the current year with intoxicating powerglukasmos ("sweetness, sweet wine"),Entry for glukasmos in Liddell et al. methê ("strong drink, "drunkenness"), nama, oinos neos ("new wine")Entry for neos in Liddell et al.All references from Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 321 (appendix).chomets25586vinegar, which was made from wine or other fermented beverage and used as a condiment or, when mixed with water, a slightly intoxicating drinkKellermann, pp. 487–493.M. G. Easton (1897a).B. S. Easton (1915a).oxos (see below), omphax ("unripe or sour grape"),Entry for omphax in Liddell et al.שמרshemar, (pl: shemarim)81055lees or dregs of wine; "wine that has been kept on the lees, and therefore old wine" ("if [the wine] were designed to be kept for some time a certain amount of lees was added to give it body")oinos (see below), trugias ("full of lees")Entry for trugias in Liddell et al.All references from Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 361 (appendix).סבאsobhe54353drink, liquor, wineoinos (see below)Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 310 (appendix).ממסךmamsak and mesekh4469, 45383"mixed drink," "mixed wine," "drink-offering;" the word is "properly a mixture of wine and water with spices that increase its stimulating properties."kerasma ("mixture")Entry for kerasma in Liddell et al.Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 291f (appendix).מזגmezeg41971"mixture", "mixed wine"krama ("mixture, especially mixed wine")Entry for krama in Liddell et al.Muraoka index in Hatch and Redpath, p. 288 (appendix).
Greek The New Testament (Koine Greek) and Septuagint Greek words:
Greek Transliteration Strong's no. Instances in NT Biblical appearances MeaningAll meanings derived from The New Testament Greek Lexicon except where noted. Specific links are given in the "Strong's no." column. Hebrew equivalent(s)οίνοςoinos363133NT and Septuagintthe common word translated "wine" in the New Testament and Septuagint.Compare the entry for oinos in Liddell et al.(corresponding to masoretic yayin, tirosh, chemer, shekar,Psalms 68:12, LXX (69:12 in the masoretic numbering) sobhe, shemarim, and 'asis)Hatch and Redpath, pp. 983f.οἶνον νέονoinon neon3631, 35018NT and Septuagintnew wine – it was put into new wine-skins and both were preserved.'asisγενήματος τῆς ἀμπέλουgenematos tes ampelou1081 3588 2883NT and Septuagint"fruit of the vine" – the only New Testament term to describe the contents of the cup at the Last Supper.pri ha'gafenγλευκοςgleukos10981NT and Septuagint"sweet wine" (sometimes rendered "new wine"), a beverage mentioned to be intoxicating in .Rich, "A certain amount of juice exuded from the ripe fruit from its own pressure, before the treading commenced. This appears to have been kept separate from the rest, and to have formed the γλεῦκος, or sweet wine noticed in Acts 2:13"Compare the entry for gleukos in Liddell et al.yayin, mathaq, mamtaq (for "fresh" water, sweet).όξοςoxos36907NT and Septuagintvinegar, sour wine; could be made from grape wine or other fermented beverages; when mixed with water, it was a common, cheap drink of the poor and of the Roman armyHeidland, pp. 288f.Compare the entry for oxos in Liddell et al.chomets; ; ; σίκεραsikera46081NT and SeptuagintHatch and Redpath, p. 1266.a Hebrew loanword from shekar meaning "strong drink."Compare the entry for sikera in Liddell et al.shekarμέθυσμαmethusma – –Septuagint onlyan intoxicating drinkEntry for methusma in Liddell et al.(corresponding to masoretic tirosh on a single occasion, and to shekar on all otherse.g., Judges 13:4, LXX )Hatch and Redpath, p. 908.οἰνοπότηςoinopotes36302NT and Septuagint"a wine drinker" (oinos, and potes, "a drinker"), is used in ; . In the Sept., .sawbaw yayin
Alcoholic content of beverages in the ancient world