Water Margin (), also called Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers, is a Chinese novel from the Ming dynasty, attributed to Shi Nai'an. Regarded as a great Chinese novel, the novel is among the first works of Chinese fiction written entirely in vernacular Chinese. It is considered a masterpiece of Chinese literature.
Set during the Northern Song dynasty (twelfth century), the story follows a group of 108 outlaws that gathers at Mount Liang (also known as Liangshan Marsh) to rebel against the government. Later they are granted amnesty and enlisted by the government to resist the nomadic conquest of the Liao dynasty and other rebels. A wealth of bibliographical and other evidence names Shi Nai'an, Luo Guanzhong (–1400), or both of them, as the novel's principal compiler, responsible for its original compilation. Through a complex textual evolution, a printed revision based on previous editions was published during the reign of Emperor Shizong (1522–1566) of the Ming dynasty, becoming the ancestral edition to a series of the most widely circulated versions. The original title of the novel was Water Margin for Loyalty and Justice ().
In its language, narrative rhetoric, structure, and distinctive elaboration of the themes of martiality and chivalry, Water Margin is an immediate inspiration for the later vernacular novels. The critics Li Zhi and Jin Shengtan both placed the book among the "greatest works of genius" in Chinese literature, and modern scholars and critics have been nearly unanimous in their praise of the work. Known for its heroic characterization of vigilantes, outlaws, and others who resist authority, the novel has introduced readers to some of the best-known characters in Chinese literature, such as Shi Jin, Lu Zhishen, Wu Song, Li Kui, Yan Qing and Song Jiang. Its characters and plots frequently reappear in other novels, operas, and performance media of all sorts. With its moral ambiguity, social critique, and theme of righteous bandit rebellion, Water Margin has long been an allegorical tool of historical and political commentary. Its influence spread far beyond the confines of literature.
Historical context and inspirations Water Margin is based on the exploits of the outlaw Song Jiang and his 107 companions; framed in the story as the incarnations of 108 demons representing 108 stars (the “36 heavenly spirits" (; sānshíliù tiāngāng) and the “72 earthly demons" (; qīshíèr dìshā)). The activities of Song Jiang's group were recorded in the historical text History of Song in the annals of Emperor Huizong of Song, which states:
Zhang Shuye's biography further describes the activities of Song Jiang and the other outlaws, and tells they were eventually defeated by Zhang.Toktoghan et al. History of Song, Volume 353, Biography of Zhang Shuye.
Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during the Southern Song, and Song Jiang came to be portrayed as a rebel leader, fighting against their enemy, the Jin. The first known source to name Song Jiang's 36 companions was Miscellaneous Observations from the Year of Guixin () by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 of Song Jiang's companions, there are names like Lu Junyi, Guan Sheng, Ruan Xiao'er, Ruan Xiaowu, Ruan Xiaoqi, Liu Tang, Hua Rong and Wu Yong. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Wu Song. Predating the advent of the novel, a sub-genre of Yuan zaju dramas, referred to as Shuihu plays, is dedicated to stories based on the legend of Song Jiang and his band. None of the Yuan-dynasty Shuihu plays are extant, and all the extant ones are of Ming editions, with Zhu Youdun's two plays being the earliest among them.
A precursor and blueprint of Water Margin is a compilation of folk tales titled Old Affairs of the Xuanhe Period (), whose entire fourth section is devoted to the story of Song Jiang and the thirty-six heavenly spirits who are reincarnated as outlaws on Mount Liang, and features many of the storylines elaborated further in the novel later, including the robbery of the convoy carrying Cai Jing's birthday gifts and the death of Yan Poxi at the hands of Song Jiang. In its approach to Song Jiang's heroic group, the book already names all 36 members and it also lists all of them with their signature epithets in "a volume of celestial writing" revealed by Jiutian Xuannü. Gong Kai from the same period composed a set of thirty-six eulogies on the outlaws led by Song Jiang, who allegedly became brave patriots and contributed to suppressing rebellions.
According to historian James Zheng Gao, it was the storytellers in Hangzhou who first compiled and told stories about rural rebels in Shandong and provided the original oral version for what became Water Margin.
Fang La, one of the primary antagonists in Water Margin, was inspired by the real-life rebel of the same name. His rebellion was linked to the spread of Manichaeism in China during Song dynasty. The rebellion started by Fang La was portrayed as a prototypical "heretical uprising" in Chinese historiography. According to Li Zhi (1527–1602), the novel's successful campaigns against the Liao and against the domestic rebel Fang La were to be interpreted allegorically and comparatively, as reproof of the Song government for failing to prevent the capture of two former emperors by the Jin and for moving south instead of standing firm.
Both the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty (1521–1568) and the closing years of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty (1360s) were marked by a chain of rebellions, which confused scholars a lot as to which of the two inspired the author, and hence when was the book written.
The title term Shuihu (Water Margin), alluding to an ode in the Classic of Poetry, which discusses how the righteous Zhou patriarch Danfu brought his people to safety at the foot of Mount Qi in present-day Shaanxi province, carries the connotations of political marginalization and rebellious resistance against the dynastic center.
According to Lu Xun, there was a large marshland at Mount Liang which existed since the Song dynasty, which served as inspiration for the base for Liangshan bandits.
Plot The opening episode in the novel is the release of the 108 Spirits, imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise.
The next chapter describes the rise of Gao Qiu, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao abuses his status as a Grand Marshal by oppressing Wang Jin; Wang's father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street-roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meets Shi Jin, who becomes his apprentice. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friend Lu Zhishen, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brother Lin Chong. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempting to assassinate him, and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's henchmen. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led by Chao Gai, rob a convoy of birthday gifts for the Imperial Tutor Cai Jing, another primary antagonist in the novel. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle there as outlaws with Chao Gai as their chief. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, including military personnel and civil officials who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 60 when Song Jiang succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the band after the latter is killed in a battle against the Zeng Family Fortress.
The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial army in a great battle at Liangshan Marsh, the outlaws eventually receive amnesty from Emperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and sends them on campaigns against invaders from the Liao dynasty and rebel forces led by Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La within the Song dynasty's domain. Although the former outlaws eventually emerge victorious against the rebels and Liao invaders, the campaigns also lead to the tragic dissolution of the 108 heroes. At least two-thirds of them die in battle while the surviving ones either return to the imperial capital to receive honours from the emperor and continue serving the Song government, or leave and spend the rest of their lives as commoners elsewhere. Song Jiang himself is eventually poisoned to death by the "Four Treacherous Ministers" – Gao Qiu, Yang Jian, Tong Guan and Cai Jing.
Characters
The 108 Heroes () are at the core of the plot of Water Margin. Based on the Taoist concept that each person's destiny is tied to a "Star of Destiny" (), the 108 Stars of Destiny are stars representing 108 demonic overlords who were banished by the deity Shangdi. Having repented since their expulsion, the 108 Stars are accidentally released from their place of confinement, and are reborn in the world as 108 heroes who band together for the cause of justice. They are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends.
Chapters This outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, while Jin Shengtan's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns.
Chapter(s) Main events 1 Marshal Hong releases the 108 spirits 2 The rise of Gao Qiu 2–3 The story of Shi Jin 3–7 The story of Lu Zhishen 7–12 The story of Lin Chong 12–13 The story of Yang Zhi 13–20 The stealing of the birthday gifts by the "Original Seven" 20–22 The story of Song Jiang 23–32 The story of Wu Song 32–35 The story of Hua Rong 36–43 Song Jiang's encounters in Jiangzhou 44–47 The story of Shi Xiu and Yang Xiong 47–50 The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village 51–52 The story of Lei Heng and Zhu Tong 53–55 The outlaws' attack on Gaotangzhou; the search for Gongsun Sheng 55–57 The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Huyan Zhuo) 57–59 The outlaws' attack on Qingzhou; Huyan Zhuo's defection to Liangshan 59–60 The outlaws, led by Gongsun Sheng, attack Mount Mangdang 60 The first assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai 60–67 The story of Lu Junyi; the outlaws attack Daming Prefecture; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Guan Sheng) 67 Guan Sheng defects to Liangshan; The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Shan Tinggui and Wei Dingguo) 68 The second assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Fortress; 69–70 The outlaws attack Dongping and Dongchang prefectures 71–74 The Grand Assembly; the funny and lethal antics of Li Kui 75–78 Emperor Huizong offers amnesty for the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Tong Guan) 78–80 The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu) 81–82 The outlaws are granted amnesty 83–89 The Liangshan heroes attack the Liao invaders 90–99 The Liangshan heroes attack Fang La 100 The tragic dissolution of the Liangshan heroes
The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against the rebel leaders Tian Hu and Wang Qing prior to the campaign against Fang La.
Reception