Wang Mang (45 BCWang Mang's biography in Book of Han indicated that he was 38 (by East Asian reckoning) in the 1st year of the Suihe era (8 BC).6 October AD23), courtesy name Jujun, officially titled the Shijianguo Emperor, was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Xin dynasty of imperial China. Originally an official and consort kin of the Han dynasty, Wang seized the throne in AD9. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow, and his rule marked the separation between the earlier Western Han dynasty and the later Eastern Han dynasty.
Traditional Chinese historiography viewed Wang as a tyrant and usurper, while more recently some historians have portrayed him as a visionary and selfless social reformer. During his reign, he abolished slavery and initiated a land redistribution program. A learned Confucian scholar who sought to implement the harmonious society he saw in the Chinese classics, his efforts ended in chaos. Wang Mang's late reign saw large-scale peasant rebellions, most notably the revolts of the Lülin and Red Eyebrows (Chimei). In October AD23, the capital Chang'an was overrun and the imperial palaces sacked. Wang Mang was killed in the battle. The Han dynasty was re-established, the Gengshi Emperor taking the throne in the year 23 and the Guangwu Emperor taking the throne in the year 25 after defeating the Red Eyebrows who had deposed the Gengshi Emperor.
Early life and career
Born in 45 BC, Wang Mang was a son of Wang Man (), a younger brother of Empress Wang Zhengjun, and his wife Qu (, family name unknown). His lineage can be traced back to the kings of Qi, whose descendants changed their surname to Wang ("King") as Qi locals referred to them as the "royal family". Wang Man died early when Wang Mang was still young, before Emperor Cheng took the throne and his mother Empress Wang became empress dowager. Unlike most of his brothers, Wang Mang did not have the opportunity to become a marquess. Empress Wang took pity on his family, and after she was widowed, she had Qu moved to the imperial palace to live with her.
While Wang Mang was well connected to the imperial family, he did not have the luxurious lifestyle that his cousins enjoyed. Unlike his relatives who lived luxuriously and competed with each other on who could spend more, Wang Mang was praised for his humility, thriftiness, and his desire to study. He wore not the clothes of young nobles but those of a young Confucian scholar. He was also praised on how filial he was to his mother and how caring he was to the wife and son of his deceased brother Wang Yong (). Wang Mang befriended many capable people and served his uncles conscientiously.
When Wang Mang's powerful uncle the commander of the armed forces Wang Feng (; 33–22 BC) grew ill, Wang Mang cared for him day and night and attended to his medical and personal needs. Wang Feng was touched and, before his death, he asked Empress Dowager Wang and Emperor Cheng to take good care of Wang Mang. Wang Mang was therefore given the post of imperial attendant () and later promoted to be one of the subcommanders of the imperial guards ().
In 16 BC, another of Wang Mang's uncles, Wang Shang () the Marquess of Chengdu, submitted a petition to divide part of his march and make Wang Mang a marquess himself. Several well-regarded officials concurred in this request, and Emperor Cheng was impressed with Wang Mang's reputation. He therefore made Wang Mang the Marquess of Xindu and promoted him to the Chamberlain for Attendants (). It was described by historians that the greater the position that Wang was promoted to, the more humble he became. He did not accumulate wealth but used the money to support scholars and to give gifts to colleagues which gained him much praise.
Wang Mang had only a single wife, Lady Wang, and no concubines. However, as later events would show, Wang was not completely faithful to his wife, even at this time.
Emperor Cheng appointed his uncles, one after another, to be the commander of the armed forces (the most powerful court official), and speculation grew as to who would succeed Wang Mang's youngest surviving uncle, Wang Gen (, commander 12–8 BC). Wang Mang was considered one of the possibilities, while another was his cousin Chunyu Zhang (a son of Empress Dowager Wang's sister), who had a much closer personal relationship to Emperor Cheng than Wang Mang. Chunyu also had friendly relations with both Emperor Cheng's wife Empress Zhao Feiyan and his deposed former wife Empress Xu.
To overcome Chunyu's presumptive hold on succeeding Wang Gen, Wang Mang took action. He collected evidence that Chunyu, a frivolous man in his words and deeds, had secretly received bribes from the deposed Empress Xu, had promised to help her become "left empress", and had promised his associates important position once he succeeded Wang Gen. In 8 BC, he informed Wang Gen and Empress Dowager Wang of the evidence, and both Wang Gen and Empress Dowager Wang were greatly displeased with Chunyu. They exiled Chunyu back to his march. Chunyu, before he left the capital, gave his horses and luxurious carriages to his cousin Wang Rong (), the son of his uncle Wang Li (), with whom he had a running feud. Wang Li, happy with Chunyu's gift, submitted a petition requesting that Chunyu be allowed to remain at the capital. However, this request was treated with suspicion by Emperor Cheng because he knew of the feud between Wang Li and Chunyu. He ordered Wang Rong to be arrested, and Wang Li (knowing this) ordered his son to commit suicide in the middle of his panic. This dramatic action only made Emperor Cheng more suspicious. He therefore had Chunyu arrested and interrogated. Chunyu admitted to deceiving Empress Xu and receiving bribes from her, and he was executed.
On 16 November 8 BC,The day of the 10th month of the 1st year of the Suihe Era, per vol. 32 of the . Wang Gen, by then seriously ill, submitted his resignation and requested that Wang Mang succeed him. On 28 November 8 BC,The day of the 10th month of the 1st year of the Suihe Era, per vol.32 of the Zizhi Tongjian. Emperor Cheng made Wang Mang the commander of the armed forces () at the age of 37.
First tenure as the commander of the armed forces After Wang Mang was promoted to this position, effectively the highest in the imperial government, he became even better known for his self-discipline and promotion of capable individuals than before. As a result, the general perception of the Wang clan as arrogant, wasteful, and petty began to be reversed.
In 7 BC, Wang's cousin Emperor Cheng died suddenly, apparently from a stroke although some historians have suggested the possibility of an overdose of aphrodisiacs given to him by Consort Zhao Hede. Emperor Cheng's nephew the crown prince Liu Xin was the son of Emperor Cheng's brother, Liu Kang (), Prince Kang of Dingtao. Liu Xin became emperor (posthumously remembered as Emperor Ai of Han). For the time being, Wang remained in his post and continued to be powerful in the imperial court, as his aunt became grand empress dowager and was influential. However, that position soon changed.
Emperor Ai's grandmother, Princess Dowager Fu of Dingtao, the former concubine of Grand Empress Dowager Wang's husband Emperor Yuan, was a domineering woman with a strong personality who was able to control her grandson and guide him as she pleased. She greatly wanted the title of empress dowager as well. Initially, Grand Empress Dowager Wang decreed that Princess Dowager Fu and Emperor Ai's mother, Consort Ding, see him every 10 days. However, Princess Dowager Fu soon began to visit her grandson every day, insisting on bestowal of titles: Empress Dowager for herself and titles of nobility for her relatives comparable to those of the Wangs. Grand Empress Dowager Wang, sympathetic to the difficult situation facing Emperor Ai, first granted Prince Kang the unusual title of "Emperor Gong of Dingtao" () and then, under the rationale of that title, granted Princess Dowager Fu the title "Empress Dowager Gong of Dingtao" () and Consort Ding the title "Empress Gong of Dingtao" (). Several members of the Fu and Ding clans were created marquesses. Grand Empress Dowager Wang also ordered Wang Mang to resign and transfer power to the Fu and Ding relatives. Emperor Ai declined to agree to this request and begged Wang Mang to stay in his administration.
Several months later, however, Wang Mang came into direct confrontation with now Empress Dowager Fu. At a major imperial banquet, the official in charge of seating placed Empress Dowager Fu's seat next to Grand Empress Dowager Wang's. When Wang Mang saw this, he rebuked the official and ordered that Empress Dowager Fu's seat be moved to the side, which drew great ire from Empress Dowager Fu, who then refused to attend the banquet. To soothe her anger, Wang Mang resigned, and Emperor Ai approved his resignation. After this event, the Wangs gradually and inexorably lost their power.
Retirement during Emperor Ai's reign After Wang Mang's resignation, Emperor Ai initially requested him to remain in the capital Chang'an and periodically meet with him to give advice. However, in 5 BC, Empress Dowager Fu achieved success in her quest for titles. Emperor Ai removed the qualification "of Dingtao" from his father's posthumous title (thus making him simply "Emperor Gong") and then gave his grandmother a variation of the grand empress dowager title (, ), as opposed to Grand Empress Dowager Wang's title (, ). His mother received a variation of the empress dowager title (, ), as opposed to Empress Dowager Zhao's title (, ). The chancellor Zhu Bo () and vice-chancellor Zhao Xuan (), at Empress Dowager Fu's behest, submitted a petition to have Wang demoted to commoner status for having previously opposed Grand Empress Fu. Emperor Ai did not do so but sent Wang back to his march in Xindu (modern Nanyang, Henan).
While in Xindu, Wang was careful not to associate with many people to forestall false accusations that he was planning a rebellion. In 5 BC, when his son Wang Huo killed a household servant, Wang Mang ordered him to commit suicide. By 2 BC, there had been several hundred petitions by commoners and officials requesting Wang Mang's return to the capital. Emperor Ai, who also respected Wang Mang, summoned him and his cousin Wang Ren (), the son of Wang Gen, back to the capital to assist Grand Empress Dowager Wang. However, Wang Mang was to have no official post and was to exert little influence on politics.
Regency and building of a personality cult Emperor Ai died suddenly in 1 BC, without an heir. Taking decisive action, Grand Empress Dowager Wang seized power back from Emperor Ai's male favourite and likely lover Dong Xian and summoned Wang Mang back to the imperial government. She put him in charge of the armed forces and the government. They summoned Prince Jizi of Zhongshan (the last surviving male issue of Grand Empress Dowager Wang's husband Emperor Yuan) to the capital to succeed Emperor Ai, and he ascended the throne as Emperor Ping. Wang Mang became his regent.
In 1 BC, Wang Mang, now back in power, took drastic action to attack actual or perceived political enemies: The relations of Emperor Ai, the Fus, and the Dings were demoted and exiled back to their ancestral lands. Empress Dowager Zhao Feiyan, the wife of Emperor Cheng, and Empress Fu, the wife of Emperor Ai, were demoted to commoner status and ordered to guard their husbands' tombs. They committed suicide in response. Grand Empress Dowager Fu and Empress Dowager Ding were posthumously demoted to the titles of "mother of Prince Gong of Dingtao" and "Consort Ding" respectively. Dong Xianwho had committed suicide soon after his demotionwas disinterred and reburied within a prison. His clan was exiled. He Wu (), the former chancellor, and his friend Gongsun Lu (), who had opposed Wang Mang's regency, were relieved of their posts.