Zhang He () (died July or August 231), courtesy name Junyi, was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He continued serving in the state of Cao Wei under its first two rulers, Cao Pi and Cao Rui, during the Three Kingdoms period until his death.
Zhang He began his career under Han Fu, the governor of Ji Province, in the 180s when he joined the Han imperial forces in suppressing the Yellow Turban Rebellion. He became a subordinate of the warlord Yuan Shao in 191 after Yuan Shao seized the governorship of Ji Province from Han Fu. Throughout the 190s, Zhang He fought in the battles against Yuan Shao's northern rival, Gongsun Zan. In 200, Zhang He initially fought on Yuan Shao's side at the Battle of Guandu against Cao Cao, a warlord who controlled the Han central government. However, he defected to Cao Cao after Yuan Shao's defeat at Guandu in the same year. Since then, he had fought in several wars under Cao Cao's banner, including the campaigns against Yuan Shao's heirs and allies (201–207), the expeditions in northwestern China (211–214), and the battles around Hanzhong (215–219). After Cao Cao's death in 220, Zhang He served in Wei and fought in battles against Wei's rival states, Shu Han and Eastern Wu. His best known victory was at the Battle of Jieting in 228, in which he defeated the Shu general Ma Su by cutting off the enemy's access to water supplies and then attacking them. In 231, he was killed in an ambush laid by Shu forces during the Battle of Mount Qi while he was reluctantly pursuing a retreating enemy force.
Chen Shou, who wrote the third-century historical text Sanguozhi, named Zhang He as one of the Five Elite Generals of his time, alongside Yu Jin, Yue Jin, Zhang Liao and Xu Huang.(評曰：太祖建茲武功，而時之良將，五子為先。于禁最號毅重，然弗克其終。張郃以巧變為稱，樂進以驍果顯名，而鑒其行事，未副所聞。或注記有遺漏，未如張遼、徐晃之備詳也。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Service under Han Fu and Yuan Shao Zhang He was from Mao County (), Hejian State (), which is in present-day Maozhou, Hebei. Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, he responded to the Han government's call for volunteers to serve in the army and help suppress the revolt. He was commissioned as a Major () and placed under the command of Han Fu, the Inspector of Ji Province (present-day southern Hebei).(張郃字儁乂，河閒鄚人也。漢末應募討黃巾，為軍司馬，屬韓馥。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
In 191, after Han Fu relinquished his control of Ji Province to the warlord Yuan Shao, Zhang He came to serve Yuan Shao and was promoted to the rank of Colonel (). Between 191 and 199, Zhang He fought on Yuan Shao's side in the war between Yuan Shao and his rival Gongsun Zan. In 199, after Yuan Shao had eliminated Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing, Zhang He was further promoted to General of the Household Who Brings Peace to the State () for his achievements in battle.(馥敗，以兵歸袁紹。紹以郃為校尉，使拒公孫瓚。瓚破，郃功多，遷寧國中郎將。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Battle of Guandu
In the year 200, Yuan Shao fought the Battle of Guandu with Cao Cao, a warlord who controlled the Han central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian. When Yuan Shao having a few advantages like a far larger army in the initial stages of the campaign, Zhang He suggested that he avoid direct confrontation with Cao Cao and instead send a light cavalry force south to attack the rear of Cao Cao's camp. Yuan Shao did not heed Zhang He's suggestion and attacked his foe's main force instead. In the first few battles of the campaign, Cao Cao's forces won several victories in which two of Yuan Shao's generals, Yan Liang and Wen Chou, were killed and no progress was made in overrunning Cao Cao's defenses.(漢晉春秋曰：郃說紹曰：「公雖連勝，然勿與曹公戰也，密遣輕騎鈔絕其南，則兵自敗矣。」紹不從之。) Han Jin Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Raid on Wuchao Yuan Shao had sent his general Chunyu Qiong to guard his army's supply depot at Wuchao (烏巢; southeast of present-day Yanjin County, Henan). One night, Cao Cao led a raid on Wuchao to destroy Yuan Shao's supplies.(太祖與袁紹相拒於官渡，紹遣將淳于瓊等督運屯烏巢，太祖自將急擊之。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
When news of the attack on Wuchao reached Yuan Shao's camp, Zhang He advised Yuan Shao: "Cao Cao's forces are well-trained so they will definitely defeat Chunyu Qiong. If Chunyu Qiong is defeated, all is lost for you, General. You should immediately dispatch forces to reinforce Wuchao."(郃說紹曰：「曹公兵精，往必破瓊等；瓊等破，則將軍事去矣，宜急引兵救之。」) Sanguozhi vol. 17. Yuan Shao's adviser Guo Tu disagreed with Zhang He: "Zhang He's idea isn't right. Why don't we attack Cao Cao's main camp instead? He will definitely head back to defend his camp. In this way, we can stop the attack on Wuchao without having to send reinforcements there."(郭圖曰：「郃計非也。不如攻其本營，勢必還，此為不救而自解也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 17. Zhang He replied: "Cao Cao's camp is well-defended and can't be conquered easily. If Chunyu Qiong is taken captive, we will all become prisoners-of-war."(郃曰：「曹公營固，攻之必不拔，若瓊等見禽，吾屬盡為虜矣。」) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Yuan Shao dispatched a detachment of light cavalry to reinforce Wuchao and sent heavily armed forces to attack Cao Cao's main camp. Cao Cao succeeded in destroying Yuan Shao's supplies at Wuchao, while his main camp successfully resisted Yuan Shao's attacks. Cao Cao scored an overall decisive victory over Yuan Shao in the battle.(紹但遣輕騎救瓊，而以重兵攻太祖營，不能下。太祖果破瓊等，紹軍潰。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Defecting to Cao Cao's side Guo Tu felt embarrassed after seeing that his suggestion had resulted in Yuan Shao's defeat, so he attempted to divert attention away from himself by accusing Zhang He of displaying schadenfreude upon learning of their defeat. Zhang He became afraid when he heard about this, so he defected to Cao Cao's side.(圖慙，又更譖郃曰：「郃快軍敗，出言不遜。」郃懼，乃歸太祖。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Cao Cao was very pleased when Zhang He came to join him and he told Zhang He: "In the past, Wu Zixu failed to understand the situation and met his downfall. What if he had abandoned Yin like Weizi and defected to Han like Han Xin?"(太祖得郃甚喜，謂曰：「昔子胥不早寤，自使身危，豈若微子去殷、韓信歸漢邪？」拜郃偏將軍，封都亭侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
The fifth-century historian Pei Songzhi pointed out a discrepancy between Zhang He's biography and the biographies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao about the time when Zhang He defected to Cao Cao's side. According to Cao Cao's and Yuan Shao's biographies, Yuan Shao sent Zhang He and Gao Lan () to attack Cao Cao's main camp per Guo Tu's suggestion. They defected to Cao Cao when they learnt that Wuchao was lost, and their defection resulted in Yuan Shao's defeat. Based on these two accounts, Zhang He defected to Cao Cao before Yuan Shao's defeat at the Battle of Guandu. On the other hand, Zhang He's biography mentioned that Zhang He defected to Cao Cao after Yuan Shao's defeat at Guandu and after Guo Tu slandered him.(臣松之案武紀及袁紹傳並云袁紹使張郃、高覽攻太祖營，郃等聞淳于瓊破，遂來降，紹衆於是大潰。是則緣郃等降而後紹軍壞也。至如此傳，為紹軍先潰，懼郭圖之譖，然後歸太祖，為參錯不同矣。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Service under Cao Cao After his defection, Zhang He was appointed by the Han imperial court (under Cao Cao's control) as a Lieutenant-General () and enfeoffed as a Marquis of a Chief Village (). Between 200 and 207, he fought on Cao Cao's side against Yuan Shao's heirs and allies at the battles of Ye (204), Bohai (205) and Liucheng (207). He was promoted to General Who Pacifies the Di () for his contributions.(拜郃偏將軍，封都亭侯。授以衆，從攻鄴，拔之。又從擊袁譚於渤海，別將軍圍雍奴，大破之。從討柳城，與張遼俱為軍鋒，以功遷平狄將軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
In 206, Zhang He participated in the campaign against pirate forces led by Guan Cheng () in Donglai Commandery (東萊郡; around present-day Yantai and Weihai, Shandong).(別征東萊，討管承， ...) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
In 209, after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Chen Lan () and Mei Cheng () started a rebellion in Lu County (六縣; in present-day Lu'an, Anhui). Cao Cao ordered Zhang Liao to lead a force to suppress the revolt. Zhang He and Niu Gai () served as Zhang Liao's deputies and succeeded in eliminating the rebels.(陳蘭、梅成以氐六縣叛，太祖遣于禁、臧霸等討成，遼督張郃、牛蓋等討蘭。 ...) Sanguozhi vol. 17.(... 又與張遼討陳蘭、梅成等，破之。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Campaigns in northwestern China
In 211, Zhang He participated in the Battle of Weinan against a coalition of warlords from the Guanzhong region led by Ma Chao and Han Sui. The coalition broke up after Cao Cao defeated the warlords in the battle. Cao Cao sent Zhang He to lead a force to attack one of the warlords, Yang Qiu, at Anding Commandery (安定郡; covering parts of present-day Ningxia and Gansu), and Zhang succeeded in forcing Yang Qiu to surrender.(從破馬超、韓遂於渭南。圍安定，降楊秋。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
In 212, Zhang He accompanied Xiahou Yuan on a campaign against another of the warlords, Liang Xing (), and the Di tribes in Wudu Commandery (武都郡; in present-day Longnan, Gansu). In 214, Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He defeated Ma Chao, who had borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery after being driven out of Guanzhong. They also eliminated rebel forces led by Song Jian ().(超奔漢中，還圍祁山。叙等急求救，諸將議者欲須太祖節度。淵曰：「公在鄴，反覆四千里，比報，叙等必敗，非救急也。」遂行，使張郃督步騎五千在前，從陳倉狹道入，淵自督糧在後。郃至渭水上，超將氐羌數千逆郃。未戰，超走，郃進軍收超軍器械。淵到，諸縣皆已降。) Sanguozhi vol. 9.(與夏侯淵討鄜賊梁興及武都氐。又破馬超，平宋建。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Battles in Hanzhong
In 215, when Cao Cao launched a campaign against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery, he first sent Zhang He to lead an army ahead to attack Liang Xing () and the Di tribal king, Dou Mao (). He ordered Zhang He to lead 5,000 infantry to clear the path after entering Hanzhong via San Pass (散關; southwest of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). After receiving Zhang Lu's surrender, Cao Cao headed back and left behind Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He and other generals to defend Hanzhong from his rival Liu Bei, who controlled Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) directly south of Hanzhong.(太祖征張魯，先遣郃督諸軍討興和氐王竇茂。太祖從散關入漢中，又先遣郃督步卒五千於前通路。至陽平，魯降，太祖還，留郃與夏侯淵等守漢中，拒劉備。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
Later that year, Zhang He tried to relocate the residents of Ba to Hanzhong. He was defeated by Liu Bei's general Zhang Fei at Dangqu (宕渠; in present-day Qu County, Sichuan) and abandoned his horse and escaped on foot via a shortcut with only a few of his men. He retreated to Nanzheng County with his remaining troops. He was promoted to General Who Defeats Bandits () later.(郃棄馬緣山，獨與麾下十餘人從間道退，引軍還南鄭，巴土獲安。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.(郃別督諸軍，降巴東、巴西二郡，徙其民於漢中。進軍宕渠，為備將張飛所拒，引還南鄭。拜盪寇將軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.
In 218, Liu Bei launched a campaign to seize control of Hanzhong from Cao Cao's forces. He garrisoned his forces at Yangping Pass (陽平關; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) while Zhang He stationed his troops at Guangshi (). Liu Bei divided his thousands of elite soldiers into ten groups and ordered them to attack Zhang He's position at night. Zhang He personally led his men to resist Liu Bei's forces and succeeded in holding off the enemy. In the meantime, Liu Bei set fire to the fences at Zhang He's camp in Zouma Valley (). Xiahou Yuan led some soldiers to put out the fire and encountered Liu Bei's force along the way and engaged the enemy. Xiahou Yuan was killed in action while Zhang He retreated.(劉備屯陽平，郃屯廣石。備以精卒萬餘，分為十部，夜急攻郃。郃率親兵搏戰，備不能克。其後備於走馬谷燒都圍，淵救火，從他道與備相遇，交戰，短兵接刃。淵遂沒，郃還陽平。) Sanguozhi vol. 17. According to the Weilüe, Liu Bei was fearful that Xiahou Yuan would be replaced by Zhang He as the commander of Cao Cao's forces in Hanzhong. He also expressed disappointment after learning that it was Xiahou Yuan, and not Zhang He, who was killed in battle.(魏略曰：淵雖為都督，劉備憚郃而易淵。及殺淵，備曰：「當得其魁，用此何為邪！」) Weilüe annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 17.