Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic (, ) or autonym (Jewish Speech) or (our speech)Ella Shohat (2017) The Invention of Judeo-Arabic, Interventions, 19:2, 153-200, is the variety of Arabic spoken by the Jews of Baghdad and other towns of Lower Mesopotamia in Iraq. This dialect differs from the North Mesopotamian Arabic spoken by Jews in Upper Mesopotamian cities such as Mosul and Anah. Baghdadi and Northern Mesopotamian are subvarieties of Judeo-Iraqi Arabic.

As with most Judeo-Arabic communities, there are likely to be few, if any, speakers of the Judeo-Iraqi Arabic dialects who still reside within Iraq. Rather these dialects have been maintained or are facing critical endangerment within respective Judeo-Iraqi diasporas, namely those of Israel and the United States. In 2014, the film Farewell Baghdad (; ), which is performed mostly in Jewish Baghdadi Arabic dialect, became the first film to be almost completely performed in Judeo-Iraqi Arabic.

The language is being taught at the Oxford School of Rare Jewish Languages by Dr Assaf Bar Moshe whose family emigrated to Israel from Iraq and who speaks it as his mother tongue . His textbook Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic, an introductory text is available as an open-source textbook .

Iraqi Jewish author Samantha Ellis wrote a book about the language, which is also her mother tongue, called Chopping Onions on my Heart in the UK and Always Carry Salt in the US, which was shortlisted for the Wingate Prize

Classification Baghdad Jewish Arabic (and Baghdadi Christian Arabic) resemble North Mesopotamian Arabic, and more distantly Syrian Arabic, rather than the Baghdadi Arabic spoken by Baghdadi Muslims. Muslims speak a gilit dialect (from their pronunciation of the Arabic word for "I said") while the others are qeltu dialects. Another resemblance between Baghdad Jewish Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic is the pronunciation of ra as a uvular. This peculiarity goes back centuries: in medieval Iraqi Judaeo-Arabic manuscripts the letters ra and ghayn are frequently interchanged.Avishur, Studies in Judaeo-Arabic Translations of the Bible.

It is thought that the qeltu dialects represent the older Arabic dialect of Mesopotamia while the gilit dialect is of Bedouin origin. Another factor may be the northern origins of the Jewish community of Baghdad after 1258 (see below under History).

Like Northern Mesopotamian and Syrian Arabic, Jewish Baghdadi Arabic shows some signs of an Aramaic substrate. Violette ShamoshMemories of Eden: A Journey through Baghdad records that, at the Passover Seder, she could understand some of the passages in Aramaic but none of the passages in Hebrew.

History The Mongol invasion wiped out most of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Later, the original qeltu Baghdadi dialect became extinct as a result of massive Bedouin immigrations to Lower Mesopotamia and was replaced by the Bedouin influenced gilit dialect. The Jews of Baghdad are a largely indigenous population and they also preserve the pre-Mongol invasion dialect of Baghdad in its Jewish form, which is similar but a bit different from the general pre-Mongol Baghdadi dialect due to the linguistic influences of Hebrew and Judeo-Babylonian Aramaic, instead of the general Babylonian Aramaic that existed before the Islamic invasion.

As with other respective religious and ethnic communities coexisting in Baghdad, the Jewish community had spoken as well as written almost exclusively in their distinctive dialect, largely drawing their linguistic influences from Hebrew and Judeo-Aramaic languages as well as from languages such as Sumerian, Akkadian, Persian, and Turkic. Simultaneous fluency and literacy in the Arabic used by the dominant Muslim communities had also been commonplace.

With waves of persecution and thus emigration, the dialect has been carried to and until recently used within respective Judeo-Iraqi diaspora communities, spanning Bombay, Calcutta, Singapore, Hong Kong, Manchester and numerous other international urban hubs. After the mass emigration of Jews from Iraq to Israel between the 1940s and 1960s, Israel came to hold the single largest linguistic community of Judeo-Iraqi Arabic speakers. With successive generations being born and raised in Israel, it is mainly the older people who still actively or passively speak Judeo-Baghdadi and other forms of Judeo-Iraqi Arabic. Israelis of Iraqi descent in turn are largely unilingual Modern Hebrew speakers.

Orthography The Jews of Baghdad also have a written Judeo-Arabic that differs from the spoken language and uses Hebrew characters.Mansour 1991, p. 15. There is a sizeable published religious literature in the language, including several Bible translations and the Qanūn an-nisā''' () of the hakham Yosef Hayyim.

The following method of describing the letters of the Hebrew alphabet was used by teachers in Baghdad until quite recently:Mansour 1991, pp. 190-191. Letter Description א 'ábu 'áġbaʿ ġūs 'alēf has four heads ב ġazūna bē a niche ג 'ábu jənḥ gimāl has a wing ד nájaġ dāl a hatchet ה ġə́jla məqṭūʿa hē its leg is severed ו 'ə́bġi wāw a needle ז dəmbūs zān a pin ח 'əmm ġəjeltēn ṣāġ ḥēṯ has two intact legs ט ġə́jla b-báṭna ṭēṯ its leg is in its stomach י 'ə́xtak lə-zġayyġi yōd your young sister כ ġazūna mdáwwġa kāf a round niche ל l-jámal lamād the camel מ ġāsa zbibāyi mīm its head is a raisin נ čəngāl nūn a hook ס mdáwwaġ səmmāx circular ע 'ábu ġasēn ʿān has two heads פ b-ṯə́mma zbibāyi pē has a raisin in its mouth צ ġasēn w-mə́ḥni ṣād two heads and bent ק ġə́jlu ṭwīli qōf its leg is long ר məčrūx rōš curved ש 'ábu tláṯ-ġūs šīn has three heads ת ġə́jla məʿġūja tā its leg is crooked ﭏ sálām 'alēf-lamād Salaam (peace)

Phonology Consonants + Jewish Baghdadi consonantsMansour 1991, p. 53. Labial Dental Palato-alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal plain velarized plain velarized Nasal () () Plosive voiceless voiced () Affricate voiceless voiced Fricative voiceless voiced () Approximant Lateral () Trill

JB is relatively conservative in preserving Classical Arabic phonemes. Classical Arabic has remained as a uvular (or post-velar) stop, like Christian Baghdad Arabic, but unlike in Muslim Baghdad Arabic where it is pronounced as . is retained as , like in Christian Baghdadi, but unlike the Muslim dialect where it is sometimes . Classical Arabic interdental are preserved, like in Muslim Baghdadi Arabic (Christian Baghdadi Arabic merges them into ). has merged into .Mansour 1991, pp. 26-28.

There are a few rare minimal pairs with (e.g. wáḷḷa 'by God! (an oath)' vs. wálla 'he went away', ḅāḅa 'father, dad' vs. bāba 'her door'). In other words, there are velarized segments which cannot be demonstrated to be phonemic, but which cannot be substituted, e.g. ṃāṃa 'mother, mummy'.Mansour 1991, p. 57. There is a certain degree of velarization harmony.

is one of the primary distinguishing features of Jewish (as opposed to Muslim, but not Christian) Baghdadi Arabic. Older Arabic has shifted to (as in Christian, but not Muslim, Baghdadi Arabic). However has been re-introduced in non-Arabic loans (e.g. brāxa 'blessing' < Heb. ברכה, qūri 'teapot' < Pers. qūrī). Modern loan words from other Arabic dialects also have this sound; this sometimes leads to cases where the same word may have two forms depending on context, e.g. ʿáskaġ 'army' vs. ḥākəm ʿáskari 'martial law'. There are many instances where this alternation leads to a subtle change in meaning, e.g. faġġ 'he poured, served food' vs. farr 'he threw'.Mansour 1991, pp. 29-31.

The consonants were originally of foreign origin, but have pervaded the language to the extent that native speakers do not perceive or even realize their non-native origin.Mansour 1991, p. 33.

Vowels

+ Jewish Baghdadi vowelsMansour 1991, p. 70. FrontCentral BackClose i iː u uːClose-mid əMid e eː o oːOpen a aː

Suprasegmentals Stress is usually on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, but sometimes on the antipenultimate (mostly in loans or compound words).Mansour 1991, pp. 87-88.

Grammar

Verbs + Perfect inflectional suffixesMansour 1991, p. 127. Unstressed Stressed s. 1 -tu -tō (tū/u)1 2 m -t -t f -ti -tē (tī/i)1 3 m - - f -ət -ət pl. 1 -na -nā 2 -təm -təm 3 -u -ō (ū/u)1+ Paradigm of kátab 'to write' in perfect alone and with a 3ms indirect objectMansour 1991, p. 126. s. 1 ktábtu ktəbtōlu 2 m ktabt ktábtlu f ktábti ktəbtēlu 3 m kátab ktáblu f kátbət kətbə́tlu pl. 1 ktábna ktəbnālu 2 ktábtəm ktabtə́mlu 3 kátbu kətbōlu before 3f.s. direct pronominal suffix

+ Imperfect inflectional affixesMansour 1991, pp. 128-129. s. 1 'a- 2 m tə- f t- ... ēn 3 m yə-1 f tə- pl. 1 nə- 2 t- ... ōn 3 y- ... ōn1+ Paradigm of kátab 'to write' in imperfectMansour 1991, p. 128. s. 1 'áktəb 2 m tə́ktəb f tkətbēn2 3 m yə́ktəb f tə́ktəb pl. 1 nə́ktəb 2 tkətbōn2 3 ykətbōn2 may be actualized as i before another consonant, e.g. yqūl > iqūl 'he'll say' n is elided when a direct or indirect object pronoun suffix is present, e.g. tkətbēla 'you (f.s.) will write to her' when the 3f.s. direct object pronoun suffix is present, ē > ī/iy and ō > ū/uw, e.g. tkətbīha/tkətbíya 'you (f.s.) will write it (f.s.)'

+ Direct object pronominal suffixesMansour 1991, pp. 169-173. s. 1 ni1, (y)(y)i2 2 m ak3, k4 f ək3, ki4 3 m nu3, u4 f ha5, a3,5 pl. 1 na 2 kəm 3 həm4, əm3+ Indirect object pronominal suffixesMansour 1991, p. 174. s. 1 -li 2 m -lak f -lək 3 m -lu f -la pl. 1 -lna 2 -lkəm 3 -ləm+ Double object pronominal suffixesMansour 1991, pp. 176-178. s. 1 -lyā (lyānu) 2 m -lyāk (lkyā, kəlyā) f -lyāki 3 m -lyānu (lyā) f -lyāha pl. 1 -lnyā 2 -lyākəm 3 -lyāhəm after verbal forms (and rarely particles) after nouns and particles after a consonant after a vowel (ha and a may both occur after some vowels, and in some instances ha may become ya or wa)

See also Baghdadi Arabic Judeo-Arabic dialects Judeo-Iraqi Arabic Mesopotamian Arabic History of the Jews in Iraq

Notes

References Citations

Sources

Blanc, Haim. Communal Dialects in Baghdad: Harvard 1964. Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: Brill 2006. Mansour, Jacob. The Jewish Baghdadi Dialect: Studies and Texts in the Judaeo-Arabic Dialect of Baghdad'': The Babylonian Jewry Heritage Centre 1991.

External links Jewish Baghdadi recordings Baghdadi Jewish Arabic-Hebrew dictionary (In Hebrew)