Chinese Buddhism, alternatively Han Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism () is a Sinicized form of Mahayana Buddhism, which draws on the Chinese Buddhist canon () as well as numerous Chinese traditions. It is the largest institutionalized religion in mainland China.Cook, Sarah (2017). The Battle for China's Spirit: Religious Revival, Repression, and Resistance under Xi Jinping. Freedom House Report. Rowman & Littlefield. , there are an estimated 42 to 53 million Chinese Buddhists in the People's Republic of China. It is also a major religion in Taiwan and Singapore, as well as among the Chinese diaspora.
Buddhism was first introduced to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE220 CE). It was promoted by multiple emperors, especially during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), which helped it spread across the country. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures with the inclusion of originally composed Chinese works based on Taoist and Confucian interpretations and influence of the time was compiled in a vast text referred to as Chinese Buddhist open canon and was foundational in creating, what is known as indigenous Chinese Buddhism. This form of Buddhism due to embracing local customs, rites, rituals and folk religion had a far-reaching impact for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the countries of the East Asian cultural sphere, such as North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, Pure Land, and Zhenyan Buddhism. Jiang Wu, "The Chinese Buddhist Canon" in The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism, p. 299, Wiley-Blackwell (2014).
History
The establishment of Buddhism in China Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during the Han dynasty, and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era.Poceski, Mario. "Chinese Buddhism" in The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions (pp. 197–218) edited Randall L. Nadeau. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially, Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. Centuries after Buddhism originated in India, Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in the 1st century CE via Tibet.
One of the first tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd-century Parthian, An Shigao (Chinese: ), who worked in the capital of Luoyang. His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (, active –186), as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa (3rd century).Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 30 During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was influential in establishing Buddhism in China.Warder, A. K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. pp. 280–281 This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools.
In the 4th-century, northern China fell into political upheaval and division during the Sixteen Kingdoms period (304–439). Many of these kingdoms were led by non-Han rulers, who were drawn to Buddhism partially due to its foreign elements. Monks such as Fotu Cheng (232–348) held high-ranking government positions, and the common people were allowed to freely practice the religion. Buddhism's growing popularity also permeated to the south, where the Chinese Eastern Jin dynasty (318–420) ruled.
The arrival of the Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The high-quality translations produced by his disciples had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the Three Treatise school).Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization, #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson. His work also established an Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.Fan Muyou. A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumārajīva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa. The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80. 2018. The Eastern Buddhist Society.
By the 460s, Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are great examples of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.
Another important translator was Paramārtha (, 499–569 CE), who, along with his Chinese disciples, translated numerous works on Abhidharma, Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts.Radich, Michael. The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499–569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 CE Zinbun 41:45–174 (2009). Copy BIBTEXKeng Ching and Michael Radich. "Paramārtha". Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives , edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019. The work of other sixth-century translators such as Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school, also known as the Consciousness-Only school ().
The development of a Chinese Buddhism
The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:
The Tiantai school, mainly founded by the efforts of master Zhiyi (538–597 CE) and based on the Lotus Sutra and the works of Zhiyi. The Huayan (Avatamsaka Sutra) school, based on the works of Chinese masters such as Dushun (557–640), Zhiyan (602–668), and Fazang (643–712). The Pure Land tradition, based on the veneration of Amitabha and the works of Buddhist monks such as Tanluan (476–542), Daochuo (562–645), and Shandao (613–681). Chan Buddhism, based on the teachings of various Chan masters such as Bodhidharma, Dazu Huike (487–593), Sengcan (d. 606), Dayi Daoxin (580–651), and Daman Hongren (601–674).
During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a group of translators responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works.Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 81. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.
The Tang era was a period of significant development for Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. The religion was popular with all social classes and was influential on Chinese culture, having more followers than Taoism. Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets such as Wang Wei (701–761) and Bo Juyi (772–846). Artistic complexes from this period, such as the Longmen Grottoes, also attest to the artistic expression of Chinese Buddhism during this era.
A well-known proponent of the religion during the Tang era was Empress Wu Zetian (), who is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex. She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva.Rothschild, N, Henry (2015). Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers. Columbia UP. p. 221.
The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, and their establishment of Zhenyan Buddhism (or Chinese Esoteric Buddhism) from 716 to 720, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites, and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang (), its influence among the upper classes was significant.
The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for taxes and wealth.
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of political upheaval and civil war, negatively impacted the religion. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.
The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. During this era, Chan Buddhism grew to become the most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and an organized system of temple rank and administration.Yampolski, Philip (2003), "Zen. A Historical Sketch", in Takeuchi Yoshinori (ed.), Buddhist Spirituality. Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass It was during this time that the Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the koan collections of the Linji school, such as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) and The Gateless Gate (1228).McRae, John (2003), Seeing Through Zen, The University Press Group Ltd
Likewise, during this time, the works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the meditation method of silent illumination.Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China, World Wisdom Books, pp. 256–257. Both of these traditions of Chan practice were influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including Japanese Zen, Korean Seon, and Vietnamese Thiền).
The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism; thus, during this period, there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as being an unorthodox path.
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of Chinese traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong.Stanley Weinstein, "The Schools of Chinese Buddhism", in Kitagawa & Cummings (eds.), Buddhism and Asian History (New York: Macmillan 1987) pp. 257–265. At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite syncretic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.Keown, Damien. A Dictionary of Buddhism. 2003. p. 104 Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.
Modernity