Vedanta (; , ), also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word Vedanta means 'conclusion of the Vedas,' and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations and enumerations contained in the Upanishads, focusing, with varying emphasis, on devotion, knowledge, and liberation. Vedanta developed into many traditions, all of which give their specific interpretations of a common group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī, translated as 'the three sources': the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.
All Vedanta traditions place great emphasis on textual exegesis and contain extensive discussions on ontology, soteriology, and epistemology, even though there is much disagreement among the various traditions. Independently considered, they may seem completely disparate due to the pronounced differences in thoughts and reasoning.
The main distinct traditions or movements within Vedanta are: Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference); Advaita (non-dualism); and the Vishnu-centred traditions of Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Tattvavada (Dvaita) (dualism), Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), and Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (inconceivable difference and non-difference). Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-Vedanta, and the philosophy of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.
Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to Vaishnavism and emphasize devotion (bhakti) to God, understood as Vishnu or a related manifestation. Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, emphasizes jñana (knowledge) and jñana Yoga over theistic devotion, though Shankara may also have been a Vaishnavite. While the monism of Advaita has attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of the 14th century Advaitin Vidyaranya and modern Hindus like Swami Vivekananda and Ramana Maharshi, most Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava theology.
Etymology and nomenclature The word Vedanta is made of two words: Veda (वेद) — refers to the four sacred Vedic texts. Anta (अन्त) — meaning "end."
The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads. Vedanta is concerned with the or knowledge section of the Vedas which is called the Upanishads.; The meaning of Vedanta expanded later to encompass the different philosophical traditions that interpret and explain the Prasthānatrayī in the light of their respective views on the relation between humans and the Divine or Absolute reality.;
The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses: They were the last literary products of the Vedic period. They represent the pinnacle of Vedic philosophy. They were taught and debated last, in the Sannyasa (ascetic) stage.
Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (āstika) traditions of textual exegesis and Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, which means the "latter enquiry" or "higher enquiry"; and is often contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, the "former enquiry" or "primary enquiry". Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or ritualistic section (the Samhita and Brahmanas) in the Vedas while Uttara Mīmāṃsā concerns itself with the deeper questions of the relation between humans and Divine or Absolute reality.
Vedanta philosophy
Common features Despite their differences, all traditions of Vedanta share some common features: Vedanta is the investigation of Brahman and Ātman.; The various traditions give their own, specific exegesis of the Upaniṣads, the Bhagavadgītā, and the Brahma Sūtras (known as the three canonical sources). Scripture (Sruti Śabda) is the main reliable source of knowledge (pramana). Brahman — Īśvara (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The exception is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause.; ; ; The self (Ātman or Jīva) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and the recipient of the consequences of these actions. Belief in rebirth (samsara) and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths (moksha). Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and conclusions of the other Vedic schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, the Purva Mimamsa).
Scripture The main Upanishads, the Bhagavadgītā, and the Brahma Sūtras are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All traditions of Vedanta give a specific exegesis of these texts, collectively called the Prasthānatrayī, literally, three sources.;
The Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna; considered the Sruti, the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sūtras, or Nyaya prasthāna / Yukti prasthāna; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta. The Bhagavadgītā, or Smriti prasthāna; considered the Smriti (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.
All prominent Vedantic teachers, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, and Vallabha, wrote commentaries on these three sources. The Brahma Sūtras of Badarayana serve as a bhedabheda-based synthesis of the teachings found in the diverse Upanishads, and while there may have been other similar syntheses in the past, only the Brahma Sūtras have survived to the present day. The Bhagavadgītā, with its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, has also been a significant influence on Vedantic thought.
All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference).Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic. This is explained by Rāmānuja as follows:A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture' [Śrī Bhāṣya 2.1.12].
For specific sub-traditions of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of Adi Shankara are nominally central, though other teachers were equally, or even more, influential. For the theistic Vaishnava schools of Vedanta, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa is particularly important. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta.Bryant, Edwin Francis (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press US, p. 112. . This text is so central to the Krishna-centered Vedanta schools that Vallabha added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the Prasthānatrayī (three classic scriptures of Vedanta).Bryant, Edwin. Krishna the Beautiful Legend of God (Srimad Bhagavata Purana Book X) (Penguin Classics), Introduction (pp. ix - lxxix).
Metaphysics Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.; Brahman or Īśvara: the ultimate reality; Ātman or Jivātman: the individual soul, self; Prakriti or Jagat: the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter;
Brahman / Īśvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of Brahman: Parā or Higher Brahman: The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as parā Brahman, nirviśeṣa Brahman, or nirguṇa Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics. Aparā or Lower Brahman: The Brahman with qualities defined as aparā Brahman or saguṇa Brahman. The saguṇa Brahman is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion.
Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects Nirguṇa – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the Upanishads, accepting Brahman as Īśvara, the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes.;
Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that Vishnu is the supreme God, thus identifying the Brahman, or absolute reality, of the Upanishads with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his Dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the Brahman both as nirguṇa and as saguṇa. Vallabha, in his Shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the Brahman, but also His manifestation as personal God (Īśvara), as matter, and as individual souls.
Relation between Brahman and Jīva / Atman The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between Ātman / Jīvātman and Brahman / Īśvara: According to Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), Ātman is identical with Brahman and there is no difference.; According to Viśiṣṭādvaita (qualified non-dualism), Jīvātman is different from Īśvara, though eternally connected with Him as His mode. The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (vishistaikya). Brahman/Īśvara alone, as organically related to all Jīvātman and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality. According to Dvaita (dualism), the Jīvātman is totally and always different from Brahman / Īśvara.; ; According to Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), the Jīvātman and Brahman are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being Krishna.
Epistemology
Pramana Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge".; It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.; Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:; ; Pratyakṣa (perception) Anumāṇa (inference) Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances) Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) Śabda (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts). The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas,; ; Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three pramanas (perception, inference and testimony).
Advaita considers Pratyakṣa (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and Śabda, the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence.; In Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita, Śabda, the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.; ;
Theory of cause and effect All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda, which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman. According to , "the Brahma Sutras espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, Vivartavada, which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) transformation of its cause, Brahman.
Overview of the classical schools of Vedanta