Pytheas of Massalia (; Ancient Greek: Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης Pythéas ho Massaliōtēs; Latin: Pytheas Massiliensis; born 350 BC, 320–306 BC) was a Greek geographer, explorer and astronomer from the Greek colony of Massalia (modern-day Marseille, France). He made a voyage of exploration to Northern Europe in about 325 BC, but his account of it, known widely in antiquity, has not survived and is now known only through the writings of others.
On this voyage, he circumnavigated and visited a considerable part of the British Isles. He was the first known Greek scientific visitor to see and describe the Arctic, polar ice, and the Celtic and Germanic tribes. He is also the first person on record to describe the midnight sun. The theoretical existence of some Northern phenomena that he described, such as a frigid zone, and temperate zones where the nights are very short in summer and the sun does not set at the summer solstice, was already known. Similarly, reports of a country of perpetual snow and darkness (the country of the Hyperboreans) had reached the Mediterranean some centuries before.
Pytheas introduced the idea of distant Thule to the geographic imagination, and his account of the tides is the earliest one known that suggests the moon as their cause.
Record
Pytheas described his travels in a work that has not survived; only excerpts remain, quoted or paraphrased by later authors. Much of what is known about Pytheas comes from commentary written by historians during the classical period hundreds of years after Pytheas's journeys occurred, most familiarly in Strabo's Geographica (late 1st century BC, or early 1st century AD),Book I.4.2–4 covers the astronomical calculations of Pytheas and calls him a prevaricator. Book II.3.5 excuses his prevarication on the grounds of his being a professional. Book III.2.11 and 4.4, Book IV.2.1 criticises him again, Book IV.4.1 mentions his reference to the Celtic Ostimi. Book IV.5.5 describes Thule. Book VII.3.1 accuses him of using his science to conceal lies. passages in the world history written by Diodorus of Sicily between 60 and 30 BC, and Pliny's Natural History (AD 77).
Diodorus does not mention Pytheas by name. The association is made as follows: Pliny reports: "Timaeus says there is an island named Mictis [...] where tin is found, and to which the Britons cross."Natural History Book IV Chapter 30 (16.104). Diodorus says that tin was brought to the island of Ictis, where there was an emporium. Walbank (1956), Mette (1952) and Roller (2006) agree that Diorodus' information on the British Isles is an epitome of Pytheas via Timaeus.
Scholars of the 19th century tended to interpret these titles as the names of distinct works covering separate voyages; for example, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology hypothesizes a voyage to Britain and Thule written about in "Ocean" and another from Cádiz to the river Don, written about in "A Sailing-Around". As is common with ancient texts, multiple titles may represent a single source, for example, if a title refers to a section rather than the whole. Mainstream consensus is that there was only one work, "On the Ocean", which was based on a periplus, a type of navigational literature.
Surviving fragments Only 'fragments' (i.e., quotations in other authors) or references/epitomies survive of Pytheas' original work in the works of other authors. Scott (2022) cited at least 39 such examples. +Table of Concordence: Fragments of PytheasConcordence NumberReferenceScott (2022)Mette (1952)Roseman (1994)Bianchetti (1998)F1F2T26F2a, F2bAetios III 17.3F2F14T27F12aCleomedes I 4F3F9(b)F9F13bCosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 2.80F4Diodoros Siculus 5.21.3–4 ≈ Timaios FGrH 566 F164.21F5Diodoros Siculus 5.22.1–4 ≈ Timaios FGrH 566 F164.22F6Diodoros Siculus 5.23.1, 4 ≈ Timaios FGrH 566 F164.23F79(a)F8F13aGeminos 6.7–9F8F1F1F1Hipparchos of Nicaea, Commentary on the Phaenomena of Aratos and Eudoxos 1.4.1F9F3T28F23Marcianus of Heracleia, Epitome of the Periplus of the Inner Sea by Menippos 1.2, GGM 1.565F10F13(a)T18(b)F9bMartianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii 6.595F11T29F12bMartianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii 6.608–9F12Mela 3.47–50F13Mela 3.54–7F14F10(a), 10(b)T17, T20F3, F7d, F10Pliny NH 1.2, 1.4, 1.37F12T24F17F15F13(a)T18(a)F9aPliny NH 2.186–7F16F13(a)T19F7ePliny NH 2.217F17F11(b)T21F16Pliny NH 4.94–7F18F11(b)T22F7cPliny NH 4.102F19F11(b)T23F8fPliny NH 4.103–4F20F13(b)Pliny NH 6.219F21F11(a)T25F15Pliny NH 37.35–6F22F15T30F19Schol in Ap Rhod 4.761–5aF23F6(f)T1bF18bSteph Byz sv ̓Ωστίωνες ≈ Aelius Herodianus, De Pros Cath 3.1.19F24F6(a)F2F8aStrabo 1.4.2F25F6(a)T1a, T2, F3F7a, F8a, F18aStrabo 1.4.3–4F26F6(a)T3, F5F6aStrabo 1.4.5F27F6(b)T4F8bStrabo 2.1.12F28F6(b)T5F11Strabo 2.1.18F29F5T6F20Strabo 2.3.5F30F7(a)T7, T8F7b, F8d, F21Strabo 2.4.1–2 = Polyb 34.5.1–13F30 n 8F7(b)F31F6(c)T9, F6F8cStrabo 2.5.7–8F32F6(c)Strabo 2.5.41F33F6(d)T10F14Strabo 2.5.43F34F8T11F4Strabo 3.2.11F35F4T12F35Strabo 3.4.4F36F7(c)T13F5Strabo 4.2.1 = Polyb 34.10.6–7F37F6(e)T14F6bStrabo 4.4.1F38F6(g)T15, F7F8eStrabo 4.5.5F39F6(h)T16F8gStrabo 7.3.1
Dating the voyage Pliny said that Timaeus (born about 350 BC) believed Pytheas's story of the discovery of amber.Natural History, Book 37, Chapter 11: "Pytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an æstuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one day's sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbours, the Teutones. Timæus, too, is of the same belief, but he has given to the island the name of Basilia." First century BC Strabo said that Dicaearchus (died about 285 BC) did not trust the stories of Pytheas.Geographica Book II.4.2 paragraph 401): "And as for Eratosthenes — adds Poseidonius — ... he believes Pytheas, and that, too, though not even Dicaearchus believed him. Now that last remark, "though not even Dicaearchus believed him," is ridiculous; as if it were fitting for Eratosthenes to use as a standard the man against whom he himself directs so many criticisms."Geog. 2.4.2 None of Aristotle's works mention Pytheas, nor do those of Ephorus. Thus the terminus post quem for Pytheas’s voyage are the works of Aristotle and Ephorus, and the terminus ante quem is that of Aristotle's student, Dicaearchus. Henry Fanshawe Tozer estimated that Pytheas's voyage occurred about 330 BC, derived from three main sources..
The earliest extant author to quote Pytheas explicitly is Hipparcus, however he is also widely quoted explicitly by other later authors such as Polybius, Cleomides, Geminus and Aetius; perhaps the last was Dicuil. By far, the most quotations of Pytheas survive in Pliny and Strabo, however they seem to be quoting Pytheas as a tertiary source, perhaps through Timaeus. The Naturalis Historia and Geographica demonstrate that Pytheas was also used by a range of Hellenistic authors starting with Dicaearchus, Timaeus, Eratosthenes, Polybius, Artemidorus and Xenophon of Lampsacus. The extent to which Hecataeus of Abdera's On the Hyperboreans may have been inspired by Pytheas is not known.
Elton (1890) summarises the method of dating as:"The exact date cannot be ascertained, but is found approximately by the facts that the astronomical discoveries of Pytheas were not mentioned by Aristotle, but were controverted on some points by Dicaearchus, the pupil of Aristotle, whose writings were published not long after the famous philosopher’s death."With which Roller (2006) agrees: The most that can be said with certainty is that Pytheas’s journey and the research performed during it, which resulted in the treatise On the Ocean, occurred probably in the 320s BC or very shortly thereafter, since it was unknown to (yet based on) Aristotle, and first quoted by Aristotle’s student Dikaiarchos.
Circumstances of the voyage
Pytheas was the first documented Mediterranean mariner to reach the British Isles.
The start of Pytheas's voyage is unknown. The Carthaginians had closed the Strait of Gibraltar to all ships from other nations. Some historians, mainly of the late 19th century and early, speculated that he must have traveled overland to the mouth of the Loire or the Garonne. Others believed that, to avoid the Carthaginian blockade, he may have stayed close to land and sailed only at night, or taken advantage of a temporary lapse in the blockade.
An alternate theory is that by the 4th century BC, the western Greeks, especially the Massaliotes, were on amicable terms with Carthage. In 348 BC, Carthage and Rome came to terms over the Sicilian Wars with a treaty defining their mutual interests. Rome could use Sicilian markets, Carthage could buy and sell goods at Rome, and slaves taken by Carthage from allies of Rome were to be set free. Rome was to stay out of the western Mediterranean, but these terms did not apply to Massalia, which had its own treaty. During the second half of the 4th century BC, the time of Pytheas' voyage, Massaliotes were presumably free to operate as they pleased; there is, at least, no evidence of conflict with Carthage in any of the sources that mention the voyage.
The early part of Pytheas' voyage was outlined by statements of Eratosthenes that Strabo said are false because they were taken from Pytheas.Geographica III.2.11. Apparently, Pytheas said that tides ended at the "sacred promontory" (Hieron akrōtērion, or Sagres Point), and from there to Gades is said to be 5 days' sail. Strabo complained about this distance, and about Pytheas' portrayal of the exact location of Tartessos. Mention of these places in a journal of the voyage indicates that Pytheas passed through the Straits of Gibraltar and sailed north along the coast of Portugal.
Voyage to Britain
The "circumnavigation"
Strabo reported that Pytheas said he "travelled over the whole of Britain that was accessible".Geographica Book II.4.1. Because there are scant first-hand sources available regarding Pytheas's journey, historians have looked at the etymology for clues about the route he took up the north Atlantic. The word epelthein, at root "come upon", does not imply any specific method, and Pytheas did not elaborate.
Pytheas did use the word "whole" and he stated a perimetros ("perimeter") for Britain of more than 40,000 stadia. Using Herodotus' standard of for one stadium gives ; however, there is no way to tell which standard foot was in effect. The English foot is an approximation. Strabo wanted to discredit Pytheas on the grounds that 40,000 stadia is outrageously high and cannot be real.
Diodorus Siculus gave a similar number:Book V chapter 21. 42,500 stadia, about , and explains that it is the perimeter of a triangle around Britain. The consensus has been that he probably took his information from Pytheas through Timaeaus. Pliny gave the circuitus reported by Pytheas as 4,875 Roman miles.Natural History Book IV Chapter 30 (16.102).
The explorer Fridtjof Nansen explained this apparent fantasy of Pytheas as a mistake of Timaeus.. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus never saw Pytheas' work, says Nansen, but they and others read of him in Timaeus. Pytheas reported only days' sail. Timaeus converted days to stadia at the rate of 1,000 per day, a standard figure of the times. However, Pytheas only sailed 560 stadia per day for a total of 23,800, which in Nansen's view is consistent with 700 stadia per degree.
Nansen later states that Pytheas must have stopped to obtain astronomical data. Presumably, the extra time was spent ashore. Using the stadia of Diodorus Siculus, one obtains 42.5 days for the time that would be spent in circumnavigating Britain. It may have been a virtual circumnavigation; see under Thule below.