Chinglish (also known as Chinese English) is spoken or written English that is either influenced by or poorly translated from the Chinese language. In South China (particularly the Lingnan region), the term "Chinglish" refers mainly to Cantonese-influenced English such as Hong Kong English, while in the rest of Mainland China it refers to English influenced by the tones, intonations and lexicons of Mandarin or other dialectal varieties of Chinese. Other terms used to describe the phenomenon include "China English", "Engrish" and "Sinicized English".He, Deyuan & Li, David C.S. (2009). Language attitudes and linguistic features in the 'China English' debate. World Englishes Vol. 28, No. 1 The degree to which a Chinese variety of English exists or can be considered legitimate is still up for debate.Hu, Xiaoqiong. (2004). "Why China English should stand alongside British, American, and the other ‘world Englishes’." English Today. 78 (20.2). 26–33
This term is commonly applied to grammatically wrong or nonsensical English expressions in Chinese contexts by second language speakers, typically due to mispellings, mispronunciations, bad synonym usage, rigid machine translations or unprofessional literal translations, and may have pejorative or deprecating connotations when used by native English speakers.Nury Vittachi (2000) From Yinglish to sado-mastication. World Englishes 19 (3), 405–414 However, Chinglish is also used to convey parody and humour in translation, and has cultural impact in sketch comedy, movies, television shows and other aspect of daily life when it is used intentionally as a form of self-expression or as mocking slangs among Chinese speakers, playing a significant role in shaping their sense of identity.
Terminology
The English word Chinglish is a portmanteau of Chinese and English. The Chinese equivalent is Zhōngshì Yīngyǔ ().
Chinglish can be compared with other interlanguage varieties of English, such as Britalian (from Italian), Czenglish (from Czech), Denglisch (German), Dunglish (Dutch), Franglais (French), Greeklish (Greek), Manglish (Malaysia), Runglish (Russian), Spanglish (Spanish), Swenglish (Swedish), Hunglish (Hungarian), Hebrish (Hebrew), Engrish (Japanese), Hinglish (Hindi), Konglish (Korean), Taglish (Tagalog), Bislish (Visayan), Singlish (in Singapore), Ponglish (Polish) and Tinglish (Thai).
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun and adjective. Chinglish, n. and a. colloq. (freq. depreciative). Brit. /ˈtʃɪŋglɪʃ/, U.S. /ˈtʃɪŋ(g)lɪʃ/. Forms: 19– Chinglish, 19– Chenglish [rare]. [Blend of Chinese n. and English n. Compare earlier Japlish n., Spanglish n. Compare also Hinglish n.2, Singlish n.2]
A. n. A mixture of Chinese and English; esp. a variety of English used by speakers of Chinese or in a bilingual Chinese and English context, typically incorporating some Chinese vocabulary or constructions, or English terms specific to a Chinese context. Also: the vocabulary of, or an individual word from, such a variety. Cf. Singlish n.2
B adj. Of or relating to Chinglish; expressed in Chinglish.Oxford English Dictionary online edition, 2004. This dictionary cites the earliest recorded usage of Chinglish (noted as a jocular term) in 1957 and of Chinese English in 1857.Maurice Freedman (1957, 1970). Chinese Family and Marriage in Singapore, Johnson Reprint Corp., p. 101. "The noun ‘keep’ is sometimes used in Chinese-English. [Note] Sometimes jocularly referred to as ‘Chinglish’." S.v., lingua. Matthew C. Perry and Robert Tomes (1857). The Americans in Japan: an abridgment of the government narrative of the U.S. expedition to Japan. D. Appelton. p. 179. "Many of the women speak a little of the lingua called Chinese English, or, in the cant phrase, pigeon ." However, Chinglish has been found to date from as early as 1936, making it one of the earliest portmanteau words for a hybrid variety of English.Lambert, James. 2018. A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity. English World-wide, 39(1): 14. Other colloquial portmanteau words for Chinese English include: Chenglish (recorded from 1979), Chinlish (1996), Chinenglish (1997), Changlish (2000) and Chinelish (2006).Lambert, James. 2018. A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity. English World-wide, 39(1): 23.
Chinglish commonly refers to a mixture of English with Modern Standard Mandarin, but it occasionally refers to mixtures with Cantonese, Shanghainese and Taiwanese Hokkien.Daniel J. Bauer, "Chinglish a problem for teachers", The China Post 10 May 2009.
Chinglish contrasts with some related terms. Chinese Pidgin English was a lingua franca that originated in the 17th century. Zhonglish, a term for Chinese influenced by English, is a portmanteau of () and "English".Victor Mair, "Xinhua English and Zhonglish", Language Log, 4 February 2009.Victor Mair, "Zhonglish: a high-impact ride?", Language Log, 13 June 2010.
Some peculiar Chinese English cannot be labeled Chinglish because it is grammatically correct, and Victor Mair calls this emerging dialect "Xinhua English or New China News English", based on the Xinhua News Agency. Take for instance, this headline: "China lodges solemn representation over Japan's permission for Rebiya Kadeer's visit". This unusual English phrase literally translates the original Chinese (), combining "put forward; raise; pose bring up", "serious; stern; unyielding; solemn", and "mutual relations; negotiation; representation".Victor Mair, "Protests, Complaints, and Representations", Language Log, 29 July 2009. "Pure Chinese" is an odd English locution in a Web advertisement: "/ CONFUCIUS INSTITUTE/ Teach you pure Chinese." This () is Chinese for the Confucius Institute, but Mair notes that "pure Chinese" curiously implies "impure Chinese".Victor Mair, "Pure Chinese?", Language Log, 28 August 2010.
One author divides Chinglish into "instrumental" and "ornamental" categories. "Instrumental Chinglish is actually intended to convey information to English speakers. Ornamental Chinglish is born of the fact that English is the lingua franca of coolness. Meaning aside, any combination of roman letters elevates a commodity – khaki pants, toilet paper, potato chips – to a higher plane of chic by suggesting that the product is geared toward an international audience."Abigail Lavin (2008), "Feudal to Translate", Weekly Standard 31 March 2008.
History
English first arrived in China in 1637, when British traders reached Hong Kong, Macau and Guangzhou (Canton).Yamuna Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson (2006), World Englishes in Asian Contexts. Hong Kong University Press, p. 157. In the 17th century, Chinese Pidgin English originated as a lingua franca for trade between British people and mostly Cantonese-speaking Chinese people. This proto-Chinglish term "pidgin" originated as a Chinese mispronunciation of the English word "business". Following the First and Second Opium War between 1839 and 1842, Pidgin English spread north to Shanghai and other treaty ports.Kachru and Nelson (2006), p. 158. Pidgin usage began to decline in the late 19th century when Chinese and missionary schools began teaching Standard English.McArthur, Tom. (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. In 1982, the People's Republic of China made English the main foreign language in education.Lam, A. (2002). English in education in China: policy changes and learners’. experiences. World Englishes, 21(2), 245–256 The spelling of words in Chinese education follows British English standards, while the pronunciation in the tape recording adheres to American English. Current estimates for the number of English learners in China range from 300 to 500 million.McArthur (2002)
Chinglish may have influenced some English expressions that are "calques" or "loan translations" from Chinese Pidgin English, for instance, "lose face" derives from . Some sources claim "long time no see" is a Chinglish calque from . More reliable references note this jocular American English phrase "used as a greeting after prolonged separation" was first recorded in 1900 for a Native American's speech, and thus more likely derives from American Indian Pidgin English.'Oxford English Dictionary, online edition, 2004, s.v. long, a., 7.c.Eric Partridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor (2006). The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: J-Z, p. 1229.
Chinese officials carried out campaigns to reduce Chinglish in preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and the Expo 2010 in Shanghai.
Soon after Beijing was awarded the 2008 Summer Olympics in 2001, the Beijing Tourism Bureau established a tipster hotline for Chinglish errors on signs, such as emergency exits at the Beijing Capital International Airport reading "No entry on peacetime".BBC News (2006/10/15) – Beijing stamps out poor English In 2007, the Beijing Speaks Foreign Languages Program (BSFLP) reported they had, "worked out 4,624 pieces of standard English translations to substitute the Chinglish ones on signs around the city", for instance, "Be careful, road slippery" instead of "To take notice of safe: The slippery are very crafty." BSFLP chairperson Chen Lin said, "We want everything to be correct. Grammar, words, culture, everything. Beijing will have thousands of visitors coming. We don't want anyone laughing at us."Beijing getting rid of badly translate signs , China Daily 27 February 2007. In addition, this article misspells "Chinglis". Reporting from Beijing, Ben Macintyre lamented the loss of signs like "Show Mercy to the Slender Grass" because, "many of the best examples of Chinglish are delightful, reflecting the inventiveness that results when two such different languages collide".Who could resist the temptation of a plate of worm pig stomach?, The Times 15 August 2008. The Global Language Monitor doubted that Beijing's attempt to eradicate Chinglish could succeed, noting that "attempting to map a precise ideogram to any particular word in the million-word English lexicon is a nearly impossible task", and pointing out that the Games' official website contained the phrase "we share the charm and joy of the Olympic Games", claiming that it was using "charm" as a transitive verb rather than a noun.