The Toledo School of Translators () is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Islamic philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic into Medieval Latin.
The School went through two distinct periods separated by a transitional phase. The first was led by Archbishop Raymond of Toledo in the 12th century, who promoted the translation of philosophical and religious works, mainly from classical Arabic into medieval Latin. Under King Alfonso X of Castile during the 13th century, the translators no longer worked with Latin as the final language, but translated into Old Spanish. This resulted in establishing the foundations of a first standard of the Spanish language, which eventually developed two varieties, one from Toledo and one from Seville.Penny, Ralph (2002). A History Of The Spanish Language(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21.
History
Background Traditionally Toledo was a center of multilingual culture and had prior importance as a centre of learning and translation, beginning in its era under Muslim rule. Numerous classical works of ancient philosophers and scientists that had been translated into Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age "back east" were well known in Al-Andalus, such as those from the Neoplatonism school, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy, etc., as well as the works of ancient philosophers and scientists from Persia, India, and China;Dmitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early 'Abbasaid Society, Routledge, 1998 these enabled Arabic-speaking populations at the time (both in the east and in "the west," or North Africa and the Iberian peninsula) to learn about many ancient classical disciplines that were generally inaccessible to the Christian parts of western Europe, and Arabic-speaking scientists in the eastern Muslim lands such as Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, al-Razi, and others had added significant works to that ancient body of thought.
Some of the Arabic literature was also translated into Latin, Hebrew, and Ladino, such as that of Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African, or the Persian Al-Khwarizmi.M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429–30, 451–2
Al-Andalus's multi-cultural richness beginning in the era of Umayyad dynasty rule in that land (711-1031) was one of the main reasons why European scholars were traveling to study there as early as the end of the 10th century. As the Arabic-speaking rulers who initially came in 711 intermingled and intermarried with local populations, the co-existence of Arabic, Hebrew, Latin, and the local Romance vernacular had seen the emergence of new pidgin vernaculars and bilingual song forms, as well as the creation of new bodies of literature in Arabic and Hebrew. The environment bred multi-lingualism. This era saw the development of a large community of Arabic-speaking Christians (known as Mozarabs) who were available to work on translations. But translating efforts were not methodically organized until Toledo was reconquered by Christian forces in 1085.C. H. Haskins, Studies in Mediaeval Science, pp. 8–10 The new rulers inherited vast libraries containing some of the leading scientific and philosophical thought not only of the ancient world, but of the Islamic east, the cutting edge of scientific discourse of the era—and it was all largely in Arabic.
Another reason for Al-Andalus's importance at the time is that some Christian leaders in certain other parts of Europe considered a few scientific and theological subjects studied by the ancients, and further advanced by the Arabic-speaking scientists and philosophers, to be heretical. The Condemnations of 1210–1277 at the medieval University of Paris, for example, were enacted to restrict the teachings of several theological works, among which were the physical treatises of Aristotle and the works of Averroes (the Latinized name of the Muslim philosopher-physician of al-Andalus, Ibn Rushd).
Beginnings Raymond of Toledo, Archbishop of Toledo from 1126 to 1151, started the first translation efforts at the library of the Cathedral of Toledo, where he led a team of translators who included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars, Madrasah teachers, and monks from the Order of Cluny. They translated many works, usually from Arabic, Hebrew and Greek into Latin. The work of these scholars made available very important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers, whom the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of several classical authors, specially Aristotle. As a result, the library of the cathedral, which had been refitted under Raymond's orders, became a translations center of a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture.C. Burnett, "Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo", pp. 249–51, 270.
Gerard of Cremona was the most productive of the Toledo translators at the time, translating more than 87 books in Arabic science.C. H. Haskins, Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, p. 287. "more of Arabic science passed into Western Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in any other way." He came to Toledo in 1167 in search of Ptolemy's Almagest. Since he did not know Arabic when he arrived, he relied on Jews and Mozarabs for translation and teaching.
His translated books include the following: Ptolemy's Almagest; Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens and the World, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology, Nicomachean Ethics; al-Khwarizmi's On Algebra and Almucabala. Archimedes' On the Measurement of the Circle; Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica, Al-Kindi's On Optics, al-Farghani's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences, al-Razi (Rhazes) chemical and medical works, and Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq.D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 6.
He edited for Latin readers the "Toledan Tables", the most accurate compilation of astronomical/astrological data (ephemeris) ever seen in Europe at the time, which were partly based on the work of al-Zarqali and the works of Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banu Musa brothers, Abu Kamil, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics).
Other medical works which he translated include the following: Haly Abenrudian's Expositio ad Tegni Galeni; Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun (Serapion) Practica, Brevarium medicine; Alkindus' De Gradibus; Rhazes' Liber ad Almansorem, Liber divisionum, Introductio in medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium and Practica puerorum; Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, De elementis and De definitionibus; Abulcasis, Al-Tasrif as Chirurgia; Avicenna, The Canon of Medicine as Liber Canonis; and Ibn Wafid (Abenguefit), the Liber de medicamentis simplicus. in
Another important translator was John of Seville. Together with Dominicus Gundissalinus during the early days of the School, he was the main translator from Arabic into Castilian. John of Seville translated Secretum Secretorum, a 10th-century Arabic encyclopedic treatise on a wide range of topics, including statecraft, ethics, physiognomy, astrology, alchemy, magic and medicine, which was very influential in Europe during the High Middle Ages. He also translated many astrology treatises from al-Fargani, Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, al-Kindi, Aḥmad ibn Yusuf, al-Battani, Thābit ibn Qurra, al-Qabisi, etc. In philosophy he produced Latin translations of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Costa ben Luca's De differentia spiritus et animae, Al-Farabi, Ibn Gabirol (Avicebron), Al-Ghazali, etc. Overall he is known for his intelligent syntheses, combined with his own observations and interpretations, particularly in astrology.
Rudolf of Bruges, a Flemish astronomer and translator from Arabic to Latin,Arzobispo Raimundo de Toledo Escuela de Traductores [1130-1187] was a pupil of Hermann of Carinthia. He translated into Latin the Liber de compositione astrolabii, a major work of Islamic science on the astrolabe, by Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, which he dedicated to his colleague John of Seville.
Dominicus Gundissalinus is considered to be the first appointed director of the Toledo School of Translators, beginning in 1180. At the beginning, Gundissalinus only translated from Greek into Latin or Castilian, as he did not have sufficient knowledge of Arabic. He depended on John of Seville for all translations in that language. Later in his career Gundissalinus mastered Arabic sufficiently to translate it by himself. Unlike his colleagues, he focused exclusively on philosophy, translating Greek and Arabic works and the commentaries of earlier Muslim philosophers of the peninsula. Among his important translations is Fons Vitæ (Meqor Hahayim), by the Jewish philosopher ibn Gabirol. At one time it was thought to be the work of the Christian scholastic Avicebron. Gundissalinus also translated several works of the major Muslim philosophers Avicenna and al-Ghazâlî. He is known for frequently eliminating passages and adding his own commentaries, rather than being scrupulously faithful to the originals.
Michael Scot, a Scotsman who studied at Oxford University and in Paris before settling in Toledo, also worked as a translator during this period.William P. D. Wightman (1953) The Growth of Scientific Ideas, p. 332. New Haven: Yale University Press. . He translated Aristotle's works on homocentric spheres, De verificatione motuum coelestium, later used by Roger Bacon, and Historia animalium, 19 books, dated Oct 21, 1220. He also translated the works of al-Betrugi (Alpetragius) in 1217, On the Motions of the Heavens, and Averroes' influential commentaries on the scientific works of Aristotle, among many others.
Herman the German was the bishop of Astorga (1266 – 1272). He was a personal friend of Manfred of Sicily. His place of birth is unknown, but it is known that he was an important figure in Castile's intellectual life before being appointed Bishop. He is credited with translating Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle in 1240, Rhetoricoric by Averroes, and the commentaries of Alfarabi regarding the Rhetoric of Aristotle. Herman also wrote his own philosophical commentary and summary of the Nicomachean Ethics.Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino (1978). Historia de los heterodoxos españoles. España romana y visigoda. Período de la Reconquista. Erasmistas y protestantes. Volumen 1. Editorial Católica. p. 439. .
Transitional period During the decades following Archbishop Raimundo's death, the translating activity in Toledo decreased considerably, although it continued into the next century, and overlapped with Alfonso's School of Translators. At least one translator, Hermannus Alemannus, is known to have worked in both schools; he translated the Old Testament during the second period. This transitional period was when the first direct translations were made from Arabic into the vernacular Castilian.
Mark of Toledo, a Spanish physician and Canon of Toledo, translated the Qur'an and various medical worksM.-T. d'Alverny, Translations and Translators, pp. 429, 455 such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq's Liber isagogarum, Hippocrates' De aere aquis locis; and Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's versions of four of Galen's treatises: De tactu pulsus, De utilitate pulsus, Se motu membrorum, De motibus liquidis. He also translated Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's Isagoge ad Tegni Galieni, a series of Muslim religious treatises, dated 1213, and a Greek treatise on biology.